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NOWLEDGE 



A Universe of Thought and Fact 



EMBRACING 



History Science, Art and Literature. 







ILLUSTRATED. 

IAW 04 * A o j \ / 


SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION ONLY. 


CHICAGO AND PHILADELPHIA: 

LOUIS BENHAM & CO. 
1890. 








A Q i c>5~ 

Se 


Copyrighted 1890 

BY 

LOUIS BENHAM & CO, 
[all rights reserved.] 


THE LIBRARY 
OF CONGRESS 

1 WASHINGTON 


MANUFACTURED BY 


LOUIS BENHAM & CO’S 
Publishing House, 
Chicago. 









As an ^jumble Tribute 
To the JVIagnificent Past, aqd 
|n 'AqtJcipation of t\\e Still JV] ore (glorious Puture 
of a 

Gireat and J\|oble Irand, 

We 

dedicate this Book. 


The Publishers. 



F through this life successfully we’d go, 

The first essential for us is to KNOW 
Ourselves and others, and the wonders done 
Under that lord of centuries, the sun. 

Then, having knowledge, we must next be WISE; 

From merely knowing, to experience rise. 

Experience puts all thoughts and facts in proper places, 
And for the fight of life our nature braces. 

So, friend, comes POWER; to know and how to act 
Together joined ; these make the living fact 
Of Power. Reader, may Knowledge. Wisdom, Power, 
Be yours increasingly through life's brief hour, 









INTRODUCTION. 


JPT T THE present day there is distinct room for a book 
which will give, in an interesting and readable way, 
definite and reliable information on many important 
subjects. This is no doubt an age of literature, so far as abund¬ 
ance in production goes, but very much that is written can 
neither be called interesting nor important, whilst, to have to 
search here and to search there for what one wants to know, 
is beyond the opportunity and the leisure of the most. 

And yet every intelligent member of society wishes to make 
himself acquainted with the chief facts in history and govern¬ 
ment, especially in his own country; he desires to acquaint him¬ 
self with the earth on which he lives, so that he may have some 
intelligent idea of its nature, features, treasures and capacities; so 
the practical arts, discoveries, inventions, which are the marvel of 
the present century, arrest his attention; music, painting, sculp¬ 
ture, architecture and the other fine arts claim his regard; and 
the world of ideas, in language arid literature, create the desire 
to know something of the men who have peopled this world with 
their creations. 

The field, no doubt, is vast; yet to obtain this information 
in small compass* and in an interesting form, must be the desire 
of very many indeed. Without instituting invidious compari¬ 
sons, it may simply be said that this volume is as near an 
approach as has yet been attained toward supplying the desid¬ 
eratum, whilst its facts and figures are up to the present date. 

Whilst it will prove a valuable book of reference, in which 
the utmost reliance may be placed, its interesting and varied 
information will, in itself, constitute a source of pleasure, as 
well as supply a means of education to those who hitherto have 

iii 



IV 


INTRODUCTION. 


been at a loss as to bow to advance their attainments easily and 
systematically. 

Any one becoming thoroughly conversant—and the character 
of the book will render valuable assistance — with history, sci¬ 
ence, the practical and fine arts, language, literature, law, medi¬ 
cine, and general knowledge, as exhibited in these pages, may 
be considered an exceedingly well informed and, indeed, a highly 
accomplished member of society. 

It may be permitted the publishers to say by way of illustra¬ 
tion, that in no book with which they are acquainted,— and 
they have examined as many as access can be had to,— is the 
history of English and American literature set forth with such 
fullness in so brief a compass; whilst, on the other hand, the 
reader will obtain information on such subjects as the Clearing 
House and the Board of Trade, concerning which so few know 
anything, whilst, at the same time, so many are curious. 

In other portions of the volume, as that relating to famous 
persons and places, and to classical mythology, those possessing 
this volume will meet with much with which they have long 
desired to render themselves more familiar, and, perhaps, still 
more which they will be glad to chance on for the first time. 

As will be readily perceived, the book is not only compre¬ 
hensive in scope but symmetrical in structure. “ Order is heaven’s 
first law,” and in observing that law, assistance is given of 
the most valuable kind to the mind, and especially to the mem¬ 
ory. Nothing except utter unreliability or insipidity is more 
damaging to the usefulness of a book than the absence of method 
or arrangement. On the other hand, the most desirable struc¬ 
ture of a volume is not one founded on a mere artificial order, 
but, as in the case of “Knowledge, Wisdom, Power,” that 
which is mainly organic, arising out of the nature and relation 
of the subjects. In the'preparation of this book it has been the 
earnest aim and constant desire of the publishers to furnish only 
the most reliable facts and figures; to what degree they have 
succeeded will be left to the reader to determine. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER I. 


DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OP AMERICA. PAGES. 

Leading Events in American History—Greenland; Mexico; Per¬ 
manent Settlement of the English, Hollanders and Swedes; 

The Puritan Fathers; French, Dutch and Swedish Settlers; 

The War of the Revolution: Its Causes. 15-20 


CHAPTER II. 

SYNOPSIS OP HISTORY. 

Beginning of Greek History; Olympic Games; Rome; Assyria, 
Carthage; Jerusalem; The Goths; Constantine; Justinian; 

The Hegira; Charlemagne; Alfred the Great?; Battle of Augs¬ 
burg; Battle of Hastings; Crusaders; Battle of Bannockburn; 

Invention of Printing; Protestant Reformation; Thirty Years’ 

War; American Declaration of Independence; Napoleon; 

Garfield; Engagements of the Civil War, Etc.; History of 
Canada; Historical Chart of the United States. 21-29 

CHAPTER III. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

Thomas Jefferson its Framer; The Thirteen States of America; 
Concluding Words of the Declaration; Constitution of 
United States; Summary of the Constitution; Congress, Sen¬ 
ate and House of Representatives; The President and Vice 
President; Order of Succession to Presidential Office; The 
Executive Department; The Cabinet; Duties of Cabinet 
Ministers; Relation of States to Congress; Judicial Branch; 

Supreme Court; Court of Claims; Circuit Courts; District 
Courts; Citizenship and Naturalization. 30-36 

CHAPTER IV 

FORM OP GOVERNMENT OF UNITED STATES — FORM OP GOVERNMENT OF 
CANADA—STATES AND TERRITORIES OF UNITED STATES. 

Abbreviations; Popular Names of States; Governors’ Term and 
Salary; Population 1880, Rank; Area; Electoral Vote; Pop¬ 
ulation of Principal Cities; United States’ Debt and Cost of 
Civil War; Debts of Various Countries. 37-50 

CHAPTER V. 

FOREIGN COUNTRIES; THEIR POPULATION, RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT. 

Comparative Strength of Army and Navy of Nations; How We 
Spend our Money; Immigration and Indians; Legal Holi¬ 
days; Salaries of Principal Officers.. 51-58 


v 








vi 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER VI. 

ARMY OF UNITED STATES. 

The Hydrographic Office; Nautical Observations; The Subsis- 
tence Department; Engineers; Ordnance Department; Army 
Medical Department; The Pay Department, Bureau of Mili¬ 
tary Justice; Military Cadets; Pay of Officers; Pay of 
Enlisted Men; Navy of United States; Officers of the Navy; 
National Debt; Revenue and Expenditure.... 

CHAPTER VII. 

POSTAL ARRANGEMENTS. 

Responsibilities of Postmaster General; Executive Department; 
Mailing Department; Registered Letters; Money Order 
Department; The Stamp Department; Rates of Postage; 
Money Orders; Canadian Postal Rates; Foreign Postage 
from Canada; Hints Relating to Correspondence and Postage; 
Facts Concerning Postoffices and Letters; The United States 
Mint; First Coinage of Silver; Amount of Coin in Circula¬ 
tion; History of the Trade Dollar; The Standard Dollar; The 
Cabinet for Coins and Relics; Visiting the Mint; Standard 
Weights; United States Bonds; Value of Foreign Coins.... 

CHAPTER VIII. 

BIOGRAPHIES OF PRESIDENTS. 

George Washington; Aid-de-Camp to General Braddock; Chief of 
Forces of Virginia; President of United States; Died Decem¬ 
ber 16, 1800. John Adams; Studied Law; Delegate to 
France; Envoy to England; Vice-President; Second Presi¬ 
dent. Biographies of all the Presidents... . 

CHAPTER IX. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Starting from the Sun; The Planet Mercury; One-half the Earth 
in Darkness; The Tropical Zone; Polar Regions; The Sea 
Surface; Surface of the Globe; Saltness of the Sea; Color of 
Sea; Depth of the Ocean; Waves, Tides and Currents; 
Mountains and Highlands; Rivers and Lakes; River-system 
of America; Climatology; Aerial Currents; Plants and An¬ 
imals- Everlasting Hills. 

CHAPTER X. 

FAMOUS VOLCANOES. 

Old Vesuvius; iEtna; Hecla; Destruction of Pompeii and Her¬ 
culaneum; Crater of Vesuvius Two Miles in Circumference; 
Interesting Observations; Salt Lake; Highest Mountains; 
Famous Caves; Canals and Navigable Rivers; Descriptive 
Names of Cities. 


PAGES. 


59-68 


69-80 


82-90 



91-105 


106-110 






CONTENTS. 


vii 


CHAPTER XI. 

MINING AND MINERALS. 

Origin of Coal; Five Kinds of Fossil Fuel; Coal-fields of the 
World- Anthracite Coal, except the Diamond, the Purest 
Form of Carbon, Jet; Amber — where found; Naphtha, Pe¬ 
troleum; Asphalt; Calcareous Substances; Meerschaum, 
Pipe Manufacture; Coral Fisheries: Fullers’ Earth; Ochre; 
Clay Slate; Quartz; Flint Sandstone Mica- Talc; Asbestos; 
Volcanic Products, Etc, Etc. 

CHAPTER XII. 

METALS AND THEIR USES. 

Geological Conditions; Beds; Veins; Mining Operations; Gold; 
Silver; Copper; Iron; Lead; Zinc; Aluminum; Tin, Etc... 

CHAPTER XIII. 

METALS AND THEIR USES—CONTINUED. 

Quicksilver, its Uses; Antimony; Manganese; Chromium; Rare 
Metals; Effect of Heat on Various Substances; Expansion of 
Metals; Precious Stones; The Largest Diamond Known; 
Sapphire; Ruby; Topaz, Etc; Diamond Fields; How Gold 
is Exported; Great Precaution Necessary; $50,000 in each 
Keg, Etc. . 

CHAPTER XIV. 

RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Railway and Telegraph; Remarkable Railway Accidents; 
Notable Shipwrecks; Electricity; Photograpy; Printing; 
Type Composing Machine: Type-writers; Clocks and Hor¬ 
ology; Telescope; Origin of the Locomotive; Great Exhibi¬ 
tions ; Exhibition of Gas Light; The Chicago Express Busi¬ 
ness. . 

CHAPTER XV. 

BUSINESS TERMS. 

Standard Measures of the United States; How to Measure a 
Circle; To Measure a Load of Hay; Measurement of Lumber; 
Sizes of Books and Paper; Term Penny as Applied to 
Nails, Taking out Patents; Table of Weights and Measures; 
Short Rules for Computing Interest; Customs Observed in the 
Sale of Grain and Flour in Various Countries; Cereal Pro¬ 
ducts of the Various Divisions of the United States. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

CHICAGO CLEARING HOUSE. 

How Business is Transacted at the Clearing House; The Board 
of Trade; Expressions used on the Board of Trade—Defini¬ 
tions of the Same; Sundries. 


PAGES. 


111-123 


124-138 


139-149 


150-169 


169-182 


182-191 






CONTENTS, 


viii* 

CHAPTER XVII. 

POPULAR CHEMISTRY. 

No Science so Conducive to Human Comfort; Chemical Attrac 
tion; Chemical Combination Distinct ffom Chemical Aggre¬ 
gation; Laws of Combination and Decomposition; Organic 
Chemistry; Vegetable Compounds; Acids found in Fruits 
and Flowers; Alkalies Exist in Plants; Gluten fromWheaten 
Flour; Animal Compounds; Fatty Substances Chiefly Formed 
of Carbon; Interesting facts about the Blood and Bones.... 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

POPULAR CHEMISTRY—CONTINUED. 

Chemistry Applied to the Arts; Chemical Manufactures; Alcohol 
in Various Liquors; Bleaching; Calico-printing; Gunpow¬ 
der and Gun-cotton; Leather-making; Factile Manufactures; 
Manufactures of Porcelain or China; Bricks, Tiles, Drain- 
tubes; Tesserae and Mosaics; Manufacture of Glass; Textile 
Manufactures; The Cotton Plant; Silkworms; Wool, Etc., 

CHAPTER XIX. 

NATURE AND SCIENCE. 

Properties and Powers; Artificial and Natural Objects; The 
Order of Nature; Laws of Nature; Facts about Astro¬ 
nomy; Stars of Different Magnitudes; The Milky Way; 
The Amount of Heat Emitted by the Sun; The Sun’s 
Diameter—Its Volume is 1,245,000 that of the Earth; Inter¬ 
esting Facts about the Plants; The Moon; The Moon’s Diam- 
ater about 2,160miles, it has no Atmosphere; Comets—Inter¬ 
esting Facts Concerning; Geology; Sea Shells found at 
Great Heights; Sand of Sea and Desert; Chalk Formation; 
Antiquity of Glaciers; Causes of Earthquakes Great Earth¬ 
quakes; Velocity of Wind, Etc. 

CHAPTER XX. 

HOME HINTS ON SCIENCE. 

Why and What we Breathe; The Atmosphere; Why Blow¬ 
ing a Fire causes it to Burn; Why a Lighted Candle Will 
Go Out if Placed Under a Closed Vessel, Wh Illumi¬ 
nating Gas is Dangerous to Inhale; Hea- a form of 
Energy; Why Smoke Ascends, or Descends; Conduction 
and Radiation of Heat; How Different Bodies Conduct 
Heat; Why Iron or Marble Feels Cold to the Touch; Latent 
Heat; How Ice is Formed; The Cause of Wind, Dew, Rain, 
Snow, Hail and Sleet; Light and Optics; Velocity of Light; 
Illusions by Showmen Explained; The Prism; Prismatic 
Colors; Ordinary Light is Composed of Seven Colored Rays; 
This Band of Colored Light called the “ Spectrum;” The 
Rainbow; A Halo; Stars and Meteorolites; Twilight and 
Sunset;? Electricity; Causes of Lightning and Thunder; 
Heat Lightning; Sound, its Velocity; Height of the Atmos¬ 
phere; The Barometer and Thermometer; Why Rain-Water 
is Soft... 


PAGES. 


191-201 


202-211 


212-224 


225-235 




CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER XXI. 

THE FINE ARTS. 

What is Art? Pleasure in Knowing the Origin of Things; 
Orgin of All Art Connected with Religion; Art a Creation 
of the. Soul; What the Sculptor, the Painter, the Drama¬ 
tist Will Impress on his Creations; Marks of Identity Often 
Very Minute, yet Perfectly Distinct; Sight and Hearing 
the Ministers of Art; The other Senses Art’s Handmaids.... 

CHAPTER XXII. 

MUSIC, PAINTING AND SCULPTURE. 

What Music Is; A Succession or Progression of Musical Sounds 
Constitute Melody; Two or more Musical Sounds Heard 
Simultaneously whose Relative Pitch is Properly Propor¬ 
tioned is Called a Chord; Italy the Land of Melody; Ger¬ 
many the Land of Harmony; Music of Modern Europe a 
New Art; Distinguished Composers; Musical Schools; 
Painting; Famous Pictures; Sculpture; Egina Marbles Dis¬ 
covered in 1812; Phidias the most Eminent of Ancient 
Sculptors; Michael Angelo and His Masterpieces. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Civil, Military and Naval Architecture; Architecture Sometimes 
the Result of National Ideas and Aspirations; The Durability 
of The Pyramids; The Most Famous Temple in Greece; 
The Ancients Our School-masters; Marvels of Ancient 
Architecture; Landscape Gardening; Chicago “The City 
of Gardens;” Costume; The Art of Dressing; Sumptuary 
Laws about Dress; The Seal-skin Jacket; Highest Spires 
and Domes..... 


CHAPTER XXIV. 

A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 

The Study of Language; The Study of Words, their Derivation; 
Modern Egyptology; Interesting History of Many Words; 
Words Often Put to Improper Uses. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 

Things to Which Words are Applied; Composition and Style, 
Copious Phraseology of Much Value; Sentences; Two Rules 
of Great Advantage; A Sentence is a Single Thought Put 
into Words; Letter-Writing; Correct and Graceful Speech. 


i£ 

PAGES. 

236-247 

248-262 

263-271 

272-277 

278-293 





CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER XXVI. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

Magnificent Wealth of Genius, the Common Inheritance of the 
Briton and American; American Literature Begins in the 
Speeches and Letters of Otis, Adams, Washington, Hamil¬ 
ton, Jefferson, Jay, Madison and Other Patriots; Eminence 
of Such Names as Bancroft, Irving, Prescott, Hildreth and 
Motley in the Province of History; American Novelists 
Second to None; Longfellow Dear to the Whole World; 
Eminent American Authors; Bryant’s Thanatopsis. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE CONTINUED. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow; John Greenleaf Whittier; Oliver 
Wendell Holmes; Edgar Allen Poe, Etc.. Etc.; Universities 
and Colleges; First College Established in the United States; 
The Most Important Colleges in America; Educations in 
Schools; Illiteracy in Various Countries. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

Intellectual Culture in Greece and Rome; Writings of Celebrated 
Authors Miraculously Preserved during the Dark Ages; Vice 
and Misery Depicted in Allegorical Poetry During the Four¬ 
teenth Century; Chaucer the Father of English Poetry; 
Decadence of Literature in the Fifteenth Century; Causes 
of the Revival of Literature in the Sixteenth Century; The 
Elizabethan Era a Marvelous one; Grandeur and Variety of 
the Elizabethan Era; Shakespeare and Spenser; An Age 
of Charming Song; Francis Bacon one of the Greatest Men 
of Genius; Milton Belongs to the Seventeenth Century; 
John Bunyan; Necessity of an Acquaintance with English 
Literature; Names of the most Celebrated Poets and Prose 
Writers.. .... .. 


CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE BIBLE—FOREIGN MISSIONS. 

What the Word “Bible” Means; The First Bible Printed; A 
Beautiful Tribute; Uncommon Beauty and Marvelous Eng¬ 
lish of the Bible; Interesting Facts About the Bible; For¬ 
eign Missions; Why we Should Believe in Foreign Missions; 
Mankind Classified According to Their Religion; The Bible 
Printed in Two Hundred and Fifty Languages and Dialects; 
Diagram of Creeds. 


PAGES. 


294-307 


308-322 


322-347 


348-351 






CONTENTS. 


xi 


CHAPTER XXX. 

MISCELLANY. 

Birds’ Nests as Food; Facts about Chicago; Fate of the Apostles; 
Large Salaries; Great Minds; Precocious Authors; Niagara’s 
Great Force; The Amazon; Colorado; Coal in thp United 
States; About Wind and Weather; Extremes of Weather in 
the Past; Knowledge and Ignorance; Our Presidents’ 
Graves; Important Facts about the United States; The 
World’s Annual Increase in Wealth; Famous Pictured 
Rocks; Fallacies in Regard to Diet; Origin of Paper Money; 
French Artists; Sunflowers as Fuel; A Peculiar Wood; 
Large Diamonds; The Holy Alliance; A Remarkable Hang¬ 
ing Bridge; Ancient and Modern Bridges; A Cause of 
Hilarity in the Kingdom of Spain; Mary Stuart; The 
Armies of Europe; The French Navy; The World’s Kings; 
Fasting; Valuable Collections of Stamps; Medical Women 
in America; A Young Gorilla; Luxurious Book Bindings; 
Interesting Facts about Ocean Steamers; Healthy Homes; 
Advice to Bathers; Barbed Wire; Weight of Loads; To 
Measure Corn in Crib; Shrinkage of Grain; Shingles; Old 
Age; Parcels Post, London; The Weight of Man’s Brain; 
Who are Creoles; The Three Golden Balls; Yellowstone 
Park; The Hair in Dress; Mirror-Painting; Floating Gar¬ 
dens; Hints for Draughtsmen; Hints in Buying Machinery; 
Capacity of Bins and Boxes; Hints on the Care of Tools, 
Etc., Etc. 


CHAPTER XXXI. 

HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 

Their Great Convenience; They Often Save Doctor’s Bills; A 
Physician’s Services Indispensable in Certain Instances, Etc. 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES—CONTINUED. 

Chemistry of Cereals; Food Tables; Poisons and Antidotes.... 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 

INTERSTATE COMMERCE LAW. 

It Came into Effect April 1887; It Applies to Common Carriers; 
When the Bill does not Apply; What the Term “Railroad ” 
Includes; All Special Terms Forbidden; The Object of the 
Bill; Any Infraction of this Law How Punished; The 
Commission Composed of Five Members Appointed by the 
President; The Salary of Each Railroad Commissioner; What 
the Bill Does not Apply to. 


PAGES. 


351-395 


396-405 


406-432 


433-434 




contents. 


xii 


CHAPTER XXXIV. 

everybody’s law. pages. 

Copyright; Usury Laws; Homestead and Measurement; Legal 
Maxims and Forms; General Maxims; Facts to Make 
Familiar; How Written Instruments are to be Construed; 

A Receipt for Money not Always Conclusive; Signatures 
Made with Lead Pencil; A Note Made on Sunday; A Note 
Made by a Minor; A Note Obtained by Fraud; If No Time 
Mentioned; Note Payable on Demand; How Indorsements 
Should be Made; The Obligations and Duties of Partners; 

Principal and Agent; Blank Forms of a Deed, Lease, or 
Mortgage, Etc.; Where Procured; How to Execute Different 
Documents: Transfers in Real Estate; Howto Draw up and 
Execute a Will. 435-448 


CHAPTER XXXV. 

PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


Noted Fictitious Characters and Places. 449-466 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

A Classical and Mythological Compendium. 467-485 





ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE. 

Knowledge, Wisdom, Power .Frontispiece. 

Attack on The Albemarle. 28 

North American Indians. 50 

Destruction of Pompeii.106 

Scene in the Polar Regions. 90 

The First Printing.153 

A Shipwreck..162 

The Solar System. 214 

Ancient Architecture.261 

City of Jerusalem. 346 

Edible Birds’ Nests.356 

Harlem River ‘ ‘ High Bridge,” N. Y. 366 














DIAGRAMS. 

Comparative Strength of the Combined Army and Navy of the 
Principal Nations... 58 

Debts of Various Nations. 66 

How We Spend Our Money. 78 

Principal Rivers of the World. 96 

Highest Peaks in the World’s Mountain Ranges. 118 

Cereal Products of Different Divisions of the United States. . 180 

Comparative Heights of the Principal High Buildings oi^the 
World.264 

Comparative Diagram, Showing the Actual and Relative Num 
bers of Mankind Classified According to Their Religion. ,. 850 








CHAPTER I. 


DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICA. 


REENLAND,was taken possession of by the Iceland¬ 
ers in a. d. 980. Christopher Columbus discovered 
the Bahama Islands in 1492, and the Isthmus of 
Darien in 1494: Sebastian Cabot, Florida, 1497; 
John and Sebastian Cabot, Newfoundland and Can¬ 
ada, 1497; Sebastian Cabot, North and South 
Carolina, 1498; Sebastian Cabot, Hudson Bay, 1512; 
De Soto, the Mississippi river, 1541; John Davis, 
Davis* strait, 1585; Henry Hudson, the Hudson 
river, 1608; William Baffin, Baffin Bay, 1616. 
Amerigo Vespucci in 1501 explored Brazil, and gave 
his name to this country. 

In 1518 Mexico was discovered by the Spaniards, and in 
1519 it was conquered by Cortez. In 1534 Canada was visited by 
Cartier, of St. Malo; a settlement having previously been made 
by Verrizani, who, in 1528, took possession in the name of Francis 
I, of France. In 1607 the English made their first permanent 
settlement at Jamestown, Va.; in 1614, several districts, includ¬ 
ing the present city of New York, were populated by Hollanders 
and Swedes. In 1620 the Puritan fathers landed on the bleak 
coast of Massachusetts. By 1770, England, after a series of con¬ 
flicts, had captured the country occupied by French, Dutch 
and Swedish settlers, and was in possession of nearly the whole 
of North America, except Mexico, which was held by Spain. 
There were thirteen American colonies, which became the 
thirteen original states after the war of the Revolution, which 
broke out in 1775. 



15 










16 DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICA. 

The causes of that war may be briefly stated. The colonists 
who were British subjects, justly conceived themselves to be 
harshly and selfishly dealt with. England seemed to act, 
prompted only by a desire for aggrandizement, and the very 
means employed to extort from the colonists their hard earned 
gains were such as to excite irritation. History has amply 
justified the action of the colonists. The Stamp tax required 
every document used in the trade or legal business of the colo¬ 
nies to bear a stamp, costing not less than about a quarter of a 
dollar, and a larger sum in proportion to the value of the docu¬ 
ment used. This tax was repealed, but, in 1767, another act of 
parliament taxed paper, glass, tea and other goods imported 
into the colonies. A search warrant authorized government 
officials to enter stores and private houses to search for contra¬ 
band goods. Finally the obnoxious taxes were abrogated, with 
the exception of that on tea of three pence on each pound im¬ 
ported. The temper of the colonists was, however, by this time 
thoroughly aroused, and, on the first ship load of tea arriving in 
Boston harbor, the citizens boarded the vessel and threw the 
cargo into the sea. 

The English government, determined to punish the recalci¬ 
trants, devised various oppressive measures and annoyances, and 
in the spring of 1775, the British soldiery and citizens of Con¬ 
cord and Lexington came into collision. Thus began the seven 
years* war, known as the war of the Revolution for American 
Independence. 

LEADING EVENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. 

A.D. 

1492—America discovered by Christopher Columbus. 

1499—Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci to America. 

1517—Mexico discovered by Cordova. 

1607—First English settlement at Jamestown, Va. 

1609—The Hudson River discovered by Henry Hudson. 

1614—New Amsterdam (now New York) built by the Dutch. 
1630—City of Boston founded. 

1664—New Amsterdam taken by the English. 


LEADING EVENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. 


17 


1682—William Penn settles in Pennsylvania. 

1717—New Orleans settled. 

1732—Birth of George Washington, February 22. 

1765— The Stamp Act passed in England, March 22. 

Colonial Congress at New York October 7. Massachu¬ 
setts, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Mary¬ 
land unite. Stamp Act resisted November 1. 

1766— Stamp Act repealed. 

1767— Tax imposed by England on tea, paper, glass, etc. 

1774— Declaration of Rights. 

1775— Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

1776— Declaration of Independence by thirteen states. 

1777— Battle of Princeton January 3, Washington defeats British. 

France recognizes American Independence December 16. 

1780— Benedict Arnold betrays his country. 

1781— Congress meets, all the states having agreed on Articles 

of Confederation. 

1782— Independence of United States recognized by Holland. 

1783— Treaty of Paris, makipg peace with England September 13. 
1785—John Adams, of Massachusetts, received as Minister to 

England. 

1787—United States Constitution passed by convention, at 
Philadelphia, George Washington presiding. 

1789—First Congress meets at New York; Washington elected 
first President of the United States. 

1797—John Adams becomes President. 

1799— Death of Washington, at Mount Vernon. 

1800— Capital removed from Philadelphia to Washington. 

1801— Thomas Jefferson President. 

1804—Alexander Hamilton shot in a duel by Aaron Burr. 

1807—Burr tried for conspiracy and acquitted. 

1809—James Madison President. 

1812—War declared with Great Britain. 

1814—Treaty of peace signed with England at Ghent, Decem¬ 
ber 24. 


2 


18 


LEADING EVENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. 


1817— James Monroe President. 

1818— Illinois admitted to the Union. 

1822_“Monroe Doctrine/' declared; Independence of South 

American republics acknowledged. 

1825—John Quincy Adams President. 

1828— A “Protective” Tariff adopted. 

1829— Andrew Jackson President. 

1833—Andrew Jackson reelected. 

1837—Martin Van Buren President. 

1839—United States Bank suspends payment. 

1841— William H. Harrison President; dies April 4; John 

Tyler succeeds him April 6. 

1842— Ashburton, or first Washington treaty, signed with Eng¬ 

land. 

1844— First telegraph line; Joseph Smith, Mormon prophet, 

shot by the mob. 

1845— James K. Polk President; War declared by Mexico. 

1846— Northwestern boundary of United States fixed at 49°. 

1848— Treaty signed with Mexico; Upper California ceded to 

United States; Gold discovered there. 

1849— Zachary Taylor President; California/ 4 Gold Fever.” 

1850— Death of President Taylor July 9; Millard Fillmore 

takes the office July 10; Fugitive Slave Bill passed. 

1851— Lopez's expedition to Cuba; visit of Louis Kossuth. 

1853— Franklin Pierce President; New York International 

Exhibition. 

1854— Anti-Slavery riots at Boston; Free Soil and Pro-Slavery 

struggle in Kansas. 

1856— Slavery question distinctly to the front; Fremont, the 

candidate of the new Republican party, is defeated by 
James Buchanan. 

1857— James Buchanan President; riots in New York; great 

commercial panic 

1858— Difficulties with 'Mormons; Atlantic telegraph com¬ 

pleted August 5. 


LEADING EVENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. 19 

1859— Walker’s filibusters seized by United States troops; Harper's 

Ferry insurrection; John Brown hanged December 2. 

1860— Presidential election in favor of Abraham Lincoln; South 

Carolina secedes from the Union; Star of the West 
fired on at Charleston. 

1861— Confederate States of America formed February 4; Jef¬ 

ferson Davis declared President February 8; inaugur¬ 
ated February 18; Abraham Lincoln inaugurated 
March 4; attack on Fort Sumter April 12-13; Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln calls for 75,000 volunteers; battle of 
Bull Run July 21; McClellan takes command of the 
army of the Potomac. 

1862— President Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers; McClel¬ 

lan made commander-in-chief September 5; Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln declares slaves free after January 1, if 
states do not return. 

1863— Emancipation Proclamation by President Lincoln Janu¬ 

ary 1; General Hooker given command of army of the 
Potomac. 

1864— Grant becomes commander-in-chief; Alabama sunk by 

Kearsage off Cherbourg; McClellan nominated as 
President by Democrats. 

1865— Andrew Johnson Vice-President March 4; General Lee 

surrenders to General Grant April 9; Abraham Lincoln 
assassinated by Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater, April 
14; Andrew Johnson takes oath as President April 15* 
Jefferson Davis captured May 10; end of civil war; 
President Johnson issues an amnesty May 30. 

1866— President Johnson vetoes important bills; vetoes over¬ 

ruled; he makes a speech-making tour. 

1867— Alaska purchased from Russia for $7,000,000; general 

amnesty proclaimed September 9. 

1868— Articles of impeachment against President Johnson agreed 

upon by the House March 23; trial begins March 22; ac¬ 
quitted May 26; Presidential election. Grant defeats 
Seymour. 


20 


LEADING EVENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY. 


1869— Ulysses S. Grant President. 

1870— Death, of General Robert E. Lee, October 12. 

1871— “Ku-Klux-Klan” outrages in North and South Carolina; 

great fire in Chicago October 8-11. 

1872— Grant defeats Greeley in Presidential election; death of 

Horace Greeley November 29. 

1873— Grant's second term begins. 

1874— Beecher-Tilton scandal in Brooklyn; race conflicts in the 

South. 

1875— Centenary celebration of Lexington and Bunker Hill; 

death of Andrew Johnson July 31. 

1876— Massacre of Custer and his army by the Sioux; centenary 

of the founding of the Republic July 4; International 
Exhibition at Philadelphia; Presidential election, 
result doubtful; Electoral College casts 185 votes for 
Hayes, 184 for Tilden. 

1877— Rutherford B. Hayes President; Chicago mob suppressed 

July 26; death of Brigham Young August 7. 

1878— Bland's Silver Bill passed, vetoed by President Hayes. 

1879— Lowell made Minister to England; Caleb Cushing dies 

at Madrid. 

1880— Presidential election, Chicago's nominees, Garfield and 

Arthur, carried. 

1881— James A. Garfield President; assassination of President 

Garfield by Charles J. Guiteau July 2, dies September 
19; Chester A. Arthui President September 20. 

1882— Longfellow died March 23; Guiteau hanged June 30. 

1883— Opening of Brooklyn bridge May 24. 

1885— General U. S. Grant died July 23. 

1886— Great earthquake at Charleston; felt at Chicago. 

1887 Interstate Commerce Bill comes into operation April 4; 
August Spies, Albert R. Parsons, George Engel and 
Adolph Fischer, condemned anarchists, executed in 
the Chicago jail November 11. 


CHAPTER II. 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


ENTURY VIII. b.c. —776 is the earliest positive 
date of Greek history. The Olympic games began 
then, were held once in four years. Each period 
of four years was termed an Olympiad. Rome was 
founded in 753, and the Romans dated from that 
year,— thus a.u.c. 100, i. e ., from the year of the 
founding of the city 100. 

(It will be observed tha„ as we reckon time in 
history the numbers grow smaller and smaller as they 
approach the Christian era.) 

W Century VII. b.c.— 625, end of Assyria; Nin- 
T eveh destroyed; Media and Babylonia divide her ter¬ 
ritory. 

Century VI. b.c— 594 to 570, Solon's legislation; 558, 
Persia founded by Cyrus. 

Century V. b.c.— 490, battle of Marathon; 480, battles of 
Thermopylse and Salamis; 431 to 404, the great Peloponnesian 
war. Sparta becomes supreme. 

Century IV. b.c.— 400, height of Spartan power; the Gauls 
take Rome; 333, Alexander the Great's first great fight with 
Persia; 301, battle of Ipsus, which settled, the boundaries of 
Alexander's great kingdom. 

Century III. b.c.— 264, beginning of first Punic war; 201, 
end of second Punic war; Rome is mistress of peninsular Italy. 

Century II. b.c.— Destruction of Carthage and Corinth; 
end of third Punic war and conquest of Greece; rapid degrada¬ 
tion of Roman Politics. 



21 








22 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


Century I. b.c.— 100, Julius Cassar born; 44, Caesar assas¬ 
sinated; 31, battle of Actium, which threw all the power into 
the hands of Octavian (Augustus); 4, commonly received date 
of the birth of Jesus Christ. 

Century I. a.d.— 70, destruction of Jerusalem; the Jews 
dispersed and their political existence ended. 

Century II. a.d.—180, end of the Good Emperors; Gibbon 
calls the |ime of the Good Emperors, “ the period in the history 
of the world during which the condition of the human race was 
most happy and prosperous.” 

Century III. a.d.— The first great army of the Goths 
crosses the Danube. 

Century IV. a.d.— 313, edict of Milan; Christians favored 
and rights restored; the time of Constantine and the political 
success of Christianity; final division of the Empire into East 
and West; 325, council of Nice (Nicaea); 385, Paganism 
abolished. 

Century V. a.d.— 451, defeat of the Huns under Attila; 
486, Frankish kingdom founded in Gaul; 449, Saxon occupation 
of Britain; English history begins. 

Century VI. a.d.— Century of Justinian; 555, issue of 
Civil Law;” silk culture brought from Persia to Eastern 
Empire. 

Century VII. a.d. —The Hejira, or flight of Mahommet; 
from July 22, 622, the Mohammedans reckon dates. 

Century VIII. a.d.— 732, battle of Tours; Charles Martel 
defeats the Saracens, and stays their career of conquest on 
Christmas-day December 25; 800, Charlemagne is crowned 
Emperor of the West. 

Century IX. a.d.— At the beginning of this century the 
Empire of the West was usurped by a wicked woman, Irene; 
900, near the close of the reign of Alfred the Great. 

Century X. a.d.— Battle of Augsburg when Otho I. nearly 
exterminates the Hungarians, who had been ravaging southern 
and central Europe; 987, accession of Hugh Capet, 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


23 


Century XI. a.d.— 1066, battle' of Hastings; Norman con¬ 
quest of England by William the Conqueror, 7th Duke of Nor¬ 
mandy; to this century belongs Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII.; 
1096, first crusade moves. 

Century XII. a.d.— 1190, Frederick I., Barbarossa, 
drowned going on the third crusade. 

Century XIII. a.d.— 1215, Magna Charta; the first great 
struggle for English liberty; 1270, seventh (and last) crusade. 

Century XIV. a.d.—1327 to 1377, time of Edward HI., 
the greatest of the Plantageuet kings; 1337, Edward claims the 
crown of France, and the “Hundred Years' War" begins; 1314, 
battle of Bannockburn, Bruce defeats Edward II., and secures 
the independence of Scotland. 

Century XV, a.d.— About 1436, invention of printing; 
1453, Turks take Constantinople, and fall of Eastern Empire; 
English expelled from France, and end of “Hundred Years' 
War;" 1492, Columbus discovers America; 1429, battle of 
Patay or Orleans; Jeanne d'Arc defeats the English; 1455 to 
1485, wars of the Roses, Red and White, Lancaster and York. 

Century XVI. a.d. —1517, Reformation begins; the time 
of Leo X., Francis I., Charles V., Henry VIII., Luther, Loyola 
and Calvin; Polish and Turkish powers at their height; 1588, 
Spanish Armada defeated; reign of Elizabeth; 1598 edict of 
Nantes, which proclaimed toleration to Protestants in France. 

Century XVII. a.d.— 1618 to 1648, the thirty years' war 
which began from the tyrannous bigotry of Ferdinand of 
Austria, desolated and depopulated Germany, and ended the 
political power of the Empire; while in character, in intelligence, 
and in morality, the German people were set back two hundred 
years." 1649, Charles I. of England beheaded; beginning of 
the Commonwealth; 1688, “The glorious Revolution" in Eng¬ 
land; the revolution'secured the liberties of England; William, 
Prince of Orange, became king; end of the Stuarts and begin¬ 
ning of the House of Brunswick, or Hanover on the British 
throne. 



24 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


Century XVIII. a.d.— 1701 to 1713, war of the Spanish 
Succession (Queen Anne's war in America); career of Marl¬ 
borough; 1763, France cedes Canada to England; 1776 American 
Declaration of Independence; 1780, French Revolution begins. 

Century XIX. a.d. —1804, Napoleon becomes emperor; 
1815, battle of Waterloo; 1848, third French revolution; 1861 to 
1865, Civil War in the United States; 1870 Rome again made 
capital of Italy; 1871, new German Empire, result of the Franco- 
German war; 1874, great famine in Bengal, 39,000,000 people 
affected; 1876, Russia declares war against Turkey; 1877, elec¬ 
tion of new Pope, Cardinal Pecci, as Leo XIII.; 1881, Emperor 
of Russia assassinated March 13; President Garfield shot July 
2; 1882, Garibaldi died July 2; end of Afghan war which cost 
$117,500,000; 1884, Chinese government declares war against 
France; 1885, Victor Hugo died May 22; 1886, Colonial and In¬ 
dian Exhibition at London visited by 550,745 persons; 1887, 
Queen Victoria's jubilee. 

OUTLINES OF CANADIAN HISTORY, 

A. D. 

1497—Newfoundland discovered by John Cabot. 

1534— Cartier's expedition to the gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1535— Cartier's second voyage to Canada; he names the St. 

Lawrence and visits the sites of Montreal and Quebec. 
1604—Port Royal founded. 

1608—Champlain founds Quebec. 

1611—Champlain founds Montreal. 

3627—Cardinal Richelieu's scheme for colonizing Canada. 

War between England and France. 

1629—The English capture Quebec, and Champlain is sent as 
a prisoner to England. 

1633—Champlain returns to Quebec with new settlers.' 

1635—Death of Champlain. 

1637—Island of Montreal settled. 

1648-60—Wars with the Iroquois. 

1664—War with the Mohawks. 




BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


25 


1667—The French West India Company obtain a gift of Canada. 
1674—Discovery of the Mississippi. 

1689— Iroquois lay waste the island of Montreal. 

1690— The British colonies resolve to invade Canada. Unsuc¬ 

cessful attack on Quebec by the British fleet. 

1713—Treaty of Utrecht; Newfoundland and Nova Scotia ceded 
to the English. 

1745—Capture of Louisburg by militia of Massachusetts. 

1753—Commencement of hostilities with the English Colonies. 

1755— Defeat of Braddock's army by the French and Indians. 

1756— War between France and England. 

1759— Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. Quebec taken by British. 

1760— De Levi retakes Quebec. Montreal taken by British. 

Canada ceded to Great Britain. 

; 1761—Canada formally made over to Great Britain. 

1763—Introduction of English laws. 

1768—Great fire in Montreal. 

1774— Boman Catholics of Canada confirmed in their property 

and political rights. 

1775— Commencement of the American War of Independence. 

Americans invade Canada. Montgomery unsuccess¬ 
fully invests Quebec; his death. 

1776— Americans retreat from Canada. 

1784—Upper Canada settled. 

1794—Toronto made capital of Upper Canada. 

1803—Slavery abolished in Canada. 

1812— Second war between United States and Britain; Ameri¬ 

cans carry Queenstown Heights. 

1813— Capture of Toronto and Fort George by Americans 

1814— Close of war. 

1816—Sir John Sherbrooke, governor of Lower Canada. 

1818—Duke of Bichmond, governor of Lower Canada. 

1822—English and French inhabitants of Lower Canada fallout. 

: 1817-25—Upper Canada politically disturbed. 

1824—Welland canal incorporated. First agitation against 
Orangemen. 






26 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


1829— First agitation for responsible government in Upper Can¬ 

ada. 

1830— Lord Aylmer, governor of Lower Canada. 

1832—Imperial duties surrendered to the Assembly. 

1835—Total separation from Great Britain claimed by the Pa- 
pineau party. 

1837— British Parliament adopts coercive measures. House of 

Assembly of Lower Canada refuses to transact busi¬ 
ness. Commercial crisis in Canada and United 
States. Rebellion in Upper Canada. 

1838— End of rebellion in Upper Canada. 

1839— Union of Upper and Lower Canada. Lord Sydenham, 

governor. 

1840— Responsible government established. Death of Lord 

Sydenham. Settlement of the clergy reserves question. 

1844— Removal of government to Montreal. 

1845— Great fire at Quebec. 

1847—Lord Elgin, governor. 

1849— The opposition in assembly advocate annexation to the 

United States. Great riots in Montreal. Destruc¬ 
tion of the Parliament House. Attack on Lord Elgin. 

1850— Agitation for reciprocity with United States. 

1852—Great fire at Montreal. Government removed to Quebec. 

1855— Sir Edmund W. Head, governor. 

1856— Sir John A. MacDonald, the attorney-general becomes 

leader of the conservatives. 

1860— Visit of the Prince of Wales to Canada. 

1861— Lord Monck, governor. 

1865— Great fire at Quebec. 

1866— Termination of Reciprocity Treaty with the United 

States. The Fenian invasion. 

1867— Formation of the Dominion of Canada by the confedera¬ 

tion of Canada, Hew Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 

1870— Manitoba becomes part of the Dominion of Canada. 

1871— British Columbia becomes part of the Dominion of 

Canada. 



BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY, 


21 


1872*—Prince Edward’s Island becomes part of the Dominion 
of Canada. Lord Dufferm, governor-general. 

1878—The Marquis of Lome appointed viceroy of Canada. 

1885— Suppression of Indian rebellion in Northwest Territory. 

Riel captured and executed. 

1886— Difficulties arise between United States and Canada on 

the Fisheries question. 


A HISTORICALCHARTOFTHE UNITED STATES. 


Name of State. 


Florida .. 

Virginia. 

New York....... 

Massachusetts.. 
New Hampshire 

New Jersey. 

Maine. 

Delaware. 

Connecticut — 

Maryland. 

Rhode Island... 

North Carolina. 

Wisconsin. 

Michigan. 

South Carolina. 
Pennsylvania. . 

Arkansas. 

Texas. 

Indiana. 

Louisiana. 

Alabama. 

Mississippi. 

Illinois. ... 

Vermont. 

Georgia. 

Tennessee. 

Missouri. 

California. 

Kentucky. 

Ohio. 

Oregon. 

Iowa. 

Minnesota. 

Kansas. 

Nebraska. 

Colorado. 

Nevada . 

West Virginia.. 


Area in 
Square 
Miles. 


59,268 

38,100 

47,000 

7,800 

9,280 

8,320 

35,000 


ci 

Q-g 


1565 

1607 

1614 

1620 

1623 

1624 

1625 


2,120 1627 


4,674 

11,124 

1,306 

50,704 
53,924 
56,451 
29,385 
46,000 
52,198 
274,£56 
33,809 
41,346 
50,722 
47,156 
55,410 
10,212 
58,000 
45,690 
65,350 
188,981 
37,680 
39,964 
95,274 
55,045 
83,531 
181,318 
75,995 
104,500 
104,125 
22,950 


1633 

1634 
1636 

1663 

1669 

1670 
1670 
1682 
1685 
1690 
1690 
1699 
1711 
1716 
1720 
1725 
1733 
1757 
1764 
176°* 
1 

1788 

1811 

1833 

1846 

1850 

1854 

1858 

1861 

1607 


By Whom Set¬ 
tled. 


Spaniards. 
English ... 
Dutch. 


English. 


English. 

Swedes & Fins. 
From Mass. 

English .. 

English. 


English. 

French. 

French. 

English. 

English. 

French. 

Spaniards. 

French. 

French. 

French. 

French.. 

French. 

From Mass. 

English. 

North Carolina. 

French. 

Spaniards. 

From Virginia.. 
New England... 
From New York 
New England... 
New England... 
N. E. &W. States 
N. E. &W. States 
Western States. 
From California 
English. 


Where first Set¬ 
tled. 

Date of ad 

mission to 

Union. 

St. Augustine... 

1845 

Jamestown. ... 

1788 

Manhattan. 

1788 

Plymouth. 

1788 

Dover. 

1788 

Burgen... 

1787 

Bristol. 

1820 

Cape Henlopen. 

1787 

Windsor. 

1788 

St. Mary’s. 

1788 

Providence. 

1790 

Albermarle. 

1789 

Green Bay. 

1848 

Detroit . 

1837 

Port Royal. 

1788 

Philadelphia.... 

1787 

Arkansas Post.. 

1836 

San Antonio.... 

1845 

Vincennes...... 

1816 

Iberville. 

1812 

Mobile. 

1814 

Natchez. 

1817 

Kaskaskia. 

1818 

Fort Dummer.. 

1791 

Savannah... 

1788 

Fort London.... 

1796 

St. Louis.. 

1821 

San Diego. 

1850 

Boonesborough. 

1792 

Marietta. 

1803 

Astoria. 

1869 

Burlington. 

1846 

St. Paul. 

1857 

Ft.Leavenworth 

1861 

Omaha. 

1867 

Denver. 

1876 

Washoe. 

1864 

Jamestown. 

1862 


Capital City. 


Tallahassee. 

Richmond. 

Albany. 

Boston. 

Concord. 

Trenton. 

Augusta. 

Dover. 

Hartford. 

Annapolis. 

Providence & 

Newport. 

Raleigh. 

Madison. 

Lansing. 

Columbia. 

Harrisburg. 

Little Rock. 

Austin. 

Indianapolis. 

New Orleans. 

Montgomery. 

Jackson. 

Springfield. 

Montpelier. 

Atlanta. 

Nashville. 

Jefferson City 

Sacramento. 

Frankfort. 

Columbus. 

Salem. 


1861. 

1861. 

1862. 

1862. 

1864. 


TROOPS CALLED OUT DURING THE LATE CIVIL WAR. 


Three months’ men. 75,000 

Three years’ men. 500.000 

Three years’ men. 300,000 

Nine months’ men . 300,000 


Three years’ men, Feb.... 500,000 


1864. Four years’ men, March.. 200,000 
1864. Three years’ men, July... 500,000 
1864. Three years’ men, Dec.... 300,000 


Grand Total.2,675,000 











































































































28 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


SKETCH OF ENGAGEMENTS IN THE CIVIL WAR. 

1861. —Attack on Fort Sumter, April 12, 13; mob attacks 
Massachusetts troops in Baltimore, April 19; skirmish at Phil¬ 
ippi, June 3; battle of Big Bethel, June 10, Federal defeat. 
Missouri —Gen. Lyon defeats Confederates; Fremont takes com¬ 
mand in the State; battle of Wilson's Creek, Lyon killed, 
August 10; Lexington surrenders, September 20. Virginia — 
Federals take Harper's Ferry, June 16; Rich Mountain, July 
11; battle of Bull Run or Manasses, Federals routed July 21; 
Fort Hatteras taken by Gen. Butler, August 29; Battle of Ball's 
Bluff, Federals defeated October 21; Port Royal, S. C., taken 
November 8. 

1862. —Battle of Big Sandy River, January 9; Mill Spring, 
Federal victory January 19; capture of Fort Henry, February 
6; Fort Donelson, February 16; Roanoke Island, N. C., Feb¬ 
ruary 8; Nashville, February 23; battle of Pea Ridge, Confed¬ 
erate defeat March 7; The Merrimac sinks Cumberland and 
Congress at Hampton Roads, March 8; Monitor defeats Merri¬ 
mac , March 9; Newbern, N. C., taken by Federals; battle of 
Winchester, Confederate defeat, March 23; Charleston block¬ 
aded; Shiloh, April 6; Island No. 10, April 7; Fort Pulaske, 
April 11; Yorktown evacuated by Confederates, May 3; battle 
of Williamsburg, May 5; New Orleans taken, April 25; Feder¬ 
als take Corinth, May 30; battle of Fair Oaks, May 31, June 1; 
Memphis taken June 6. Lee drives McClellan back; seven days 
fighting from the Chickahominy to the James, June 25 to July 
1; President Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers; battle of 
Cedar Mountain; Banks defeated by “Stonewall" Jackson, 
August 9; second battle of Bull Run, September 1; Pope 
defeated by Jackson; Pope sent to the Nprthwest; McDowell 
superseded; McClellan made commander-in-chief, September 
5; Confederates defeated at South Mountain, September 15; at 
Antietam, September 17; Harper's Ferry taken by Jackson, 
September 15; joins Lee; Federals lose Lexington and Mum- 
fordsville; battle of Corinth, indecisive, October 4; Gen. 




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. . 






























"V 






, 



































SKETCH OF ENGAGEMENTS IN THE CIVIL WAR. 


29 


Stuart (Confederate), enters Pennsylvania; battle of Freder¬ 
icksburg, December 13; Burnside driven back; battle of Mur- 
phreesboro, December 31; January 1, Gen. Bragg (Confederate), 
defeated. 

1863. —Gen. Hooker placed in command of the Army of the 
Potomac; Federal attack on Charleston repelled, April 7; battle 
of Grand Gulf and Port Gibson, in Mississippi; battle of Chancel - 
lorsville; Hooker defeated; Jackson mortally wounded May 
2, 3; death of Jackson, May 10; Confederates defeated at 
Jackson, Miss., May 15; Grant invests Vicksburg, May 18; 
assault repelled May 22; Gen. Lee invades Maryland and Penn¬ 
sylvania, in June; Hooker superseded by Meade, June 27; 
battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3; Confederates retreat; siege of 
Charleston, August 21; Fort Sumter destroyed; Quantrell 
burns Lawrence, Kan., August 21; battle of Chickamauga, Sep¬ 
tember, 19, 20; Bragg defeats Rosecrans, who is superseded by 
Grant, Thomas, and Sherman; battle of Lookout Mountain; 
Thomas defeats Bragg, November 25; Missionary Ridge, Novem¬ 
ber 26; Longstreet driven back, November 29. 

1864. —Abortive attack on Richmond, February and March; 
Grant succeeds Hallock as commander-in-chief; Kirby Smith 
drives back Sherman, April 5; Fort Pillow Massacre, April 12; 
Army of Potomac crosses the Rapidan, May 4; Forrest's raids; 
battles of the Wilderness, May 5-7; Spottsylvania Court House, 
Federal success May 7-12; Gen. Sherman marches on Atlanta, 
May 7; Lee driven back on Richmond; Grant invests Peters¬ 
burg, June 15; assault repulsed June 18; Alabama , commanded 
by Captain Semmes sunk by Kearsage, commanded by Com¬ 
modore Winslow, June 19; Semmes escaped; Early invades 
Maryland, July 5; fights in front of Atlanta, July 20, 22, 24; 
explosion of Petersburg Mine, assault repulsed July 30; battle 
of Moorefield, W. Va., August 7; Farragut's Fleet at Mobile, 
August 5; Fort Powell blown up; Fort Gaines surrenders, 
August 8; Sheridan's forces in the Shenandoah Valley, August 
9; retire to Chw.te&town, August 15; Kilpatrick's raid in Georgia, 



30 


BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY. 


August 18; battle of Jonesboro, Ga., August 31; surrender of 
Atlanta, Ga., September 1; battle of Winchester, Va., Septem¬ 
ber 19; battle of Fisher’s Hill, September 22; battle of Pilot 
Knob, Mo., September 23; Confederate Gen. Price defeated 
with great loss on several occasions in Missouri, October; battle 
of Allatoona, Ga., Confederate defeat, October 5; battle of Cedar 
Creek, Va., Sheridan defeats Early, October 19; bombardment 
and capture of Plymouth, N. C., October 29; Sherman’s march 
from Atlanta to Savannah, November, capture of Savannah, 
Stoneman’s raid in Virginia, December 15. 

1865.—Capture of Fort Fisher, N. C., January 15; evacua¬ 
tion of Wilmington, N. C., January 21; battles at Fort Stead - 
man and Hatcher’s Run, Va., Unionist victory, February 6, 7; 
evacuation of Charleston, February 18; Sheridan’s capture of 
Early’s army in Shenandoah valley, March 2; battle of Averys- 
boro, N. C., Confederates retreat March 16; battles near Ben- 
tonville, N. C., Sherman defeats Johnson with heavy loss, March 
18-21; battle of Five Forks, Va., Sheridan defeats Lee, nearly 
3,000 Confederates killed and wounded and 5,000 prisoners, 
April 1; evacuations of Petersburg, Va:, April 1, 2; of Rich¬ 
mond, Va., April 2; Gen. Lee surrenders to Gen. Grant, 
April 9, at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, 27,000 officers 
and men paroled as prisoners of war; Lee’s losses in killed and 
wounded from March 25 to April 3, estimated at more than 
10,000; Mobile, Salisbury, N. C., and Columbus, Ga., captured 
by the Union army April 12; Sherman enters Raleigh, N. C., 
April 13; Gen. Johnson surrenders to the Unionists at Dur¬ 
ham’s Station, near Greensboro, N. C., April 26; Jefferson 
Davis captured May 10; close of the War of the Rebellion. 






CHAPTER III 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


N July 2, 1776, at tlie Continental Congress, in ses¬ 
sion at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, the follow¬ 
ing resolution, introduced by Richard Henry Lee, 
was adopted : 

“That these united colonies are, and of right ought 
to be, free and independent states ; that they are 
absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, 
and that all political connection between them and 
the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally 
dissolved.” 

On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence, 
prepared by Thomas Jefferson, was passed amid the 
greatest enthusiasm. The thirteen British colonies then became 
known as the “Thirteen United States of America.” They 
were Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, 
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina and Virginia. 

After setting forth the weighty reasons which had induced 
the Congress to take this step the Declaration concludes as 
follows : 

“We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of 
America in General Congress assembled, appealing to the 
Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, 
do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these 
colonies, solemnly publish and declare : — That these united 
colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
states; and that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them 

31 















32 


THE DECLARATION _ xNDEPENDENCE. 


is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and 
independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all 
other acts, which independent states may of right do. And, 
for support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the pro¬ 
tection of Divine Providence , we mutually pledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor.” 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In 1787 a national convention met at Philadelphia, when after 
four months of deliberation the present Constitution of the 
United States was adopted. After having been transmitted to 
the various states for approval it was finally ratified by Congress 
March 4, 1789, and thenceforth became the law of the land. 

SUMMARY OF THE CONSTITUTION 

All legislative powers are vested in Congress consisting of a 
Senate and a House of Representatives. 

The House of Representatives is composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people. A Representative 
must be twenty-five years of age ; at least seven years a citizen 
of the United States, and an inhabitant of the state in which 
.he is chosen. Representatives bear a proportion to the popula¬ 
tion of the state, based on the decennial census. Each state is 
entitled to at least one Representative. 

The Senate is composed of members chosen by the state 
Legislatures. Each state is entitled to two Senators. The 
term of office is six years, and it has been so arranged that one 
third of the Senators go out of office every two years. A Sena¬ 
tor must be at least thirty years of age ; a citizen for nine years 
preceding his election; and an inhabitant of the state for 
which he is elected In case of vacancies in recess of the Legis¬ 
lature of any state the Executive has power to make temporary 
appointments. 

The Vice-President of the United States is chairman of the 
Senate, but has only a casting vote. 


SUMMARY OP THE CONSTITUTION. 


33 


The Senate has sole power to try all impeachments. Sena¬ 
tors and Representatives receive compensation for their services. 
During attendance on their respective Houses they are (except 
for treason, felony, and breach of peace) privileged from arrest. 
The salary of Senators and Representatives is $7,000 and $5,000 
respectively, per annum ; that of the Speaker of the House 
$8,000. They are also allowed twenty cents per mile as mileage 
to and from Washington, for each annual session, and $125 per 
annum for newspapers and stationery. Eight dollars per day 
is deducted from their salaries for absence caused otherwise than 
by sickness. 

THE PRESIDENT. 

The executive power is vested in the President of the United 
States. He holds office for four years and (together with the 
Vice-President, chosen for the same term) is elected as follows : 

The voters in eacl^ state cast their ballot for electors equal 
in number to the combined Senators and Representatives from 
the state. These electors meet at the capitols of their several 
states on the first Wednesday of December following the general 
election, which is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday 
in November. They cast their votes for President and Vice- 
President, make a list thereof, sign, seal, and certify to the 
same, and transmit the lists by special messenger to the Presi¬ 
dent of the United States Senate. On a given day the houses 
of Congress hold joint session, when the votes so transmitted 
are opened by the President of the Senate, counted in presence 
of Congress, and the result declared. If no candidate receives 
a majority of electoral votes, the election is thrown into the 
House of Representatives who proceed at once to act. The 
President and Vice-President may be re-elected. 

The qualifications for President and Vice-President are that 
they must be native-born citizens of the United States, resident 
at least for fourteen years, and at least thirty-five years of age. 

The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, 
and of the militia in actual service. He appoints cabinet, judi- 
3 



34 


SUMMARY OP THE CONSTITUTION. 




cial and executive officers, with the Senate’s approval, except 
those whose appointment comes within the operation of the 
civil service act. His salary is $50,000 per annum. 

The Vice-President is President of the Senate, and in case of 
the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resig¬ 
nation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of his 
office, it devolves upon the Vice-President. His salary is $8,- 
000, as is also that of each of the Cabinet officers. 

The order of succession in all cases where the presidential 
office becomes vacant during the term of four years, is: First, 
the Vice-President; second. Secretary of State; and in order, the 
Secretaries of Treasury, War, Attorney-General, Postmaster- 
General, Secretaries of the Navy and Interior. This is as 
amended by act of Congress January 19, 1886. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS. 

These are seven in number: the Department of State, under 
the Secretary of State; the Treasury Department, under the 
Secretary of the Treasury; the War and Navy Departments, 
under their secretaries; the Postoffice Department, under the 
Postmaster-General; the Department of the Interior, under the 
Secretary of the Interior; and the Department of Justice, under 
the Attorney-General. These departments are subdivided into 
bureaus with each its head or chief. 

The heads of departments constitute the Cabinet of the* 
President. 

The Secretary of State has the custody of the great seal, 
which, at the President’s direction, he affixes to official docu¬ 
ments. He treats with foreign nations through their resident 
ministers, conducts correspondence with ministers resident 
abroad, grants passports, etc., etc. 

The Secretary of the Treasury superintends the financial 
affairs of the government; he recommends to Congress measures 
to the advantage of the nation’s credit; negotiates loans, settles 
public accounts, etc., etc. 


SUMMARY OF THE CONSTITUTION. 


35 


The Secretary of War controls military affairs, the construc¬ 
tion of fortifications; he directs surveys, and has supervision of 
the engineer, subsistence, ordnance, topographical, medical and 
quartermaster-general's bureaus, and the adjutant-general's 
office. 

The Secretary of the Navy superintends all naval affairs, 
including navy yards, building of war vessels, etc., etc. 

The Secretary of the Interior has control of Indian affairs, 
pensions, patents, census, public buildings, general land office, 
etc., etc. 

The Postmaster-General has control of all postal arrange¬ 
ments, both in the United States and with foreign nations. 

The Attorney-General presides over the Department of 
Justice; he is a legal counsel for the President and other gov¬ 
ernment officials; and the legal protector of the national rights. 

RELATION OF STATES AND CONGRESS. 

The state is sovereign over all minor divisions, such as town¬ 
ships and counties, and may change their boundaries and make 
laws governing their administration at pleasure. At the start 
the states claimed to hold the position of separate and inde¬ 
pendent nations, having entire control of their internal affairs, 
and this right they intended to reserve in forming the Union. 
They possessed also the right to regulate their relations with 
neighboring states and nations. This right, as also that of levy¬ 
ing duties on imports, they surrendered to Congress. 

In some matters the two houses which compose Congress 
must act together, whilst others fall within the particular prov¬ 
ince either of the Senate or of the House. 

The Senate acts upon all treaties negotiated; ratifies 01 rejects 
them. It also acts similarly upon all nominations, made by the 
President, for the more important public offices. The House 
originates all bills for revenue, such as tariff and internal rev¬ 
enue bills, and has the sole power of impeaching public officers, 
while the Senate has the sole power of trying impeachments. 


36 


SUMMARY OF THE CONSTITUTION. 


When the President is tried, as in the case of President Johnson, 
the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides. A conviction 
requires a two-thirds vote. 

THE JUDICIAL BRANCH. 

The judicial power of the United States is vested in one Su¬ 
preme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges both of 
the Supreme and inferior courts, hold their office during good 
behavior. 

The Supreme Court is the final judicial resort of the nation. 

The Court of Claims has exclusive jurisdiction in all suits on 
claims against the United States. 

There are nine Circuit Courts having a jurisdiction over 
from three to six states each. The Chief Justice of the Supreme 
Court and his eight associates are assigned to these nine circuits, 
to hold the courts in them, but in actual practice a Circuit Judge 
is appointed for each circuit. 

District Courts are held in fifty-eight districts. There are 
sometimes two or three districts in one state, and a district never 
overpasses the limits of a state. In some cases a district has its 
own district judge, but that functionary occasionally overtakes 
the work of two or three districts in the same state. 

Two or three terms of the District are held in each district 
every year ; and one or more sessions of the circuit. The judges 
can act for each other, a circuit for a district judge and vice 
versa . 

The Circuit Courts have appellate jurisdiction over the Dis¬ 
trict Courts in actions involving $50 or more. The Circuit 
Judges also appoint Commissioners within their circuits, who 
have certain prescribed powers, especially with reference to pre¬ 
liminary examinations in criminal charges. 

The District Courts take cognizance of offenses and causes of 
action arising under the revenue, postal and patent laws, 
offenses against the currency etc. 


SUMMARY OF THE CONSTITUTION. 


37 


The Supreme Court is in the main a court of appeal. The 
amount involved must exceed $5,000. It is the final authority 
on all questions involving a construction of the Constitution, as 
the Supreme Courts of the -states decide finally all questions 
under their respective State Constitutions. 

The salary of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is 
$10,500 per annum; of the Associate Judges $10,000 each. 

CITIZENSHIP AND NATURALIZATION. 

All persons born or naturalized in the United States and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States, and of the state m which they reside. The right of citi¬ 
zens of the United States to vote is not denied or abridged by 
the United States or any state on account of race, color, or pre¬ 
vious condition of servitude. 

Naturalization requires an individual (alien) to have lived 
within the territory of the United States for five years immed¬ 
iately before his application. He must also have resided during 
one year of the five in the state or territory in which he makes 
his application. Two years before he can be legally naturalized, 
he must go before a Federal court, or some local court of record, 
or the clerk of either of such courts, and make an affidavit that 
he proposes to become a full citizen of the United States at the 
proper time, etc. In most states this declaration entitles him to 
vote. In Illinois the law requires that the voter must be a citi¬ 
zen. 

The voter must be a male, 21 years of age, and resident in 
the state where he votes a definite length of time. 

In Illinois the residence required is, — state, one year; 
county, ninety days; election district, thirty days. 




CHAPTER IV. 


FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED 
STATES. 



HE government of the United States is both in form 
and spirit Republican or Democratic. These words 
really have reference to the same thing, although 
having been adopted for political purposes by differ¬ 
ent parties, their wider and fundamental meaning 
has, to a certain extent, been observed. The idea of 
a Republic or Democracy is government for tne peo¬ 
ple and by the people. Older nationalities rather 
began at the other end. The people existed for the 
state, not the state for the people. Theirs was 

“The good old rule, the simple plan, 

“That he should take who had the power, 

“And he should keep who can.” 


They were hampered by such conceptions as that involved 
in “the divine right of kings.” Aristocracies arising naturally 
enough, took possession of all power and property. Steps 
towards freedom and a juster division of things in the Old 
World, have been mainly a modification of this state of matters, 
which, unfortunately, the church on the whole has lent its vast 
influence to perpetuate. Sometimes reform has involved con¬ 
spiracy, massacre, war and all the horrors of violent revolution, 
as in France. In England the change has proceeded generally 
by slow and partial modification of existing laws. 

America had the advantage of beginning de novo . We 
have not in the United States the spectacle of a people growing 
up out of barbarism into civilization, encumbered by traditions 
and effete ideas, but of a nation enriched with the thought and 

38 












FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. 


39 


experience of all the ages, unshackled by the past, free to frame 
a constitution from all that reason approved of as best. The 
constitutions of the various states, and that of the United 
States is founded on human law and practice, taking us hack as 
far as the palmy days of ancient Rome. 

Every form of government that is stable is founded on reason, 
and its divisions are not artificial, but natural. Even in this 
country the constitution has been subject to mortification and 
progress because at no point of time can human experience be 
said to be complete, but the fundamental idea of a Republic has 
all along been maintained. As long as that is jealously con¬ 
served, particular measures, even although they may be unwise 
or unjust, are not likely to do permanent harm. 

The three divisions into which government naturally falls 
are the Legislative, Executive and Judicial. To Congress 
belongs the Legislative, to the President the Executive, and the 
Courts the Judicial functions. 

GOVERNMENT OF CANADA. 

The executive authority of the country is vested in the 
sovereign of Great Britain represented by a Governor-General 
assisted by a Privy Council. The legislative power is vested 
in a Parliament consisting of an Upper House, styled the 
Senate, and a House of Commons. The seat of the government 
for the Dominion is Ottawa. The Imperial Act uniting Canada, 
Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, came into force March 29, 
1867. 

Either English or French may be employed in the debates of 
both Houses of Parliament. 

There are eight provinces, viz: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
New Brunswick, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, 
Manitoba, and Northwestern Territories. 

Each province has a Legislature, which makes laws in rela¬ 
tion to matters which concern itself and are not dealt with by 
the Parliament of the Dominion. These include: Direct taxa- 


40 


GOVERNMENT OF CANADA. 


tion within the province, to provide revenue for provincial pur¬ 
poses; the borrowing of money on the sole credit of the province; 
the establishment and tenure of provincial offices and the appoint¬ 
ment and payment of provincial officers; the management and sales 
of public lands belonging to the province, and of the timber and 
wood thereon; the establishment, maintenance, and manage¬ 
ment of public and reformatory prisons in and for the province; 
the establishment, maintenance and management of hospitals, 
asylums, charities, and eleemosynary institutions in and for the 
province, other than marine hospitals; municipal institutions in 
the province; shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer and other licenses 
in order to the raising of a revenue for provincial, local or 
municipal purposes; local works and undertakings other than 
such as are of the following classes: (a.) Lines of steam and 
other ships, railways, canals, telegraphs, and other works and 
undertakings connecting the province with any other province, or 
extending beyond its limits, (b.) Lines of steamships and any 
British or foreign country, (c.) Such works as, although wholly 
situate within the province, are before or after the execution, 
declared by the parliament of Canada to be for the general 
advantage of Canada or for the advantage of two or more of the 
provinces. The provincial Legislatures deal also with the incor¬ 
poration of companies with provincial objects; the solemnization 
of marriage in the province; property and civil rights in the 
province; the administration of justice in the province, includ¬ 
ing the constitution, maintenance and organization of provincial 
courts, both of civil and of criminal jurisdiction, and including 
procedure in civil matters in those courts; the imposition of 
punishment by fine, penalty or imprisonment, for enforcing any 
law of the province made in relation to any matter coming >vithin 
- any of the classes enumerated in this section; generally all 
matters of a merely local and private nature in the province. 

In each of the provinces the Legislature makes laws in ref¬ 
erence to education; but the rights of denominational schools are 
carefully guarded. 



GOVERNMENT OF CANADA, 


41 


Each province has a Lieutenant Governor appointed by the 
the Governor-General in council. . The Governor-General also 
appoints the Judges of the Superior, District and County Court, 
in each province, except those of Probate in Nova Scotia and 
New Brunswick. 

PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA, CENSUS 1881. 


INCREASE 

CITY. PROVINCE. POPUL’TN. SINCE 1871 


Montreal. 


..140,747 

33,522 

Toronto. 


.. 86,415 

30,323 

Quebec.. 


.. 62,446 

2,747 

Halifax... 


,. 36,100 

6,518 

Hamilton. 


.. 35,961 

9,245 

Ottawa. 


.. 27,412 

5,867 

St. John. 


.. 26,127 

* _ 

London... 


.. 19,746 

3,920 

Portland. 


.. is,m 

2,706 

Kingston. 


.. 14,091 

1,684 

Charlottetown..., 


.. 11,485 

2,678 

Guelph. 


.. 9,890 

3,012 

St. Catherine..., 


.. 9,631 

1,767 

Brantford. 


.. 9,616 

1,509 

Belleville.. 


.. 9,516 

2,211 

Three Rivers.... 


.. 9,286 

1,100 

St. Thomas. 


.. 8,367 

6,170 

Stratford. 


.. 8,239 

3,926 

Winnipeg. 


.. 7,985 

7,744 

Chatham. 


.. 7,873 

2,000 

Brockville. 


.. 7,609 

2,507 

Levis.. 


.. 7,597 

906 

Sherbrooke. 


.. 7,227 

2,795 

Hull. 


.. 6,890 


Peterborough... 

.Ontario. 

.. 6,812 

3,201 

Windsor. 


.. 6,561 

2,308 

St. Henri. 


.. 6,415 


























































42 


POFULAR NAMES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES, 


Fredericton. 

. .New Brunswick.. 

... 6,218 

212 

Victoria. 

..British Columbia- 

... 5,925 

2,655 

St. Jean Baptiste... 

,.. Quebec.. 

... 5,874 

1,466 

Sorel. 

,. .Quebec.. 

... 5,791 

155 

Port Hope. 

.. Ontario. 

... 5,585 

471 


♦Decrease; great fire in 1877. 


AREA OF PROVINCES, CAPITALS, MALE AND FEMALE POPULATION. 


PROVINCE. 

Ontario (Ont.). 

Quebec (Que). 

Nova Scotia (N. 8.)*'- 

New Brunswick (N. B.). 
British Columbia (B. C.). 
Prince Edward Island ) 

(p. e. i.) r • 

Manitoba (Man.). 

N. W. Territories ) 

(N. WT.) )•••• 


CAPITAL OF 

AREA. PROVINCE. MALES. 

65,111,463. .Toronto.976,470 

120,764,651. .Quebec.678,175 

13,392,003. .Halifax.220,538 

17,393,410. .Fredericton... 164,119 
218,435,200. .Victoria...... 29,503 

1,365,400.. Charlottetown. 54,729 

78,848,040.. Winnipeg. 37,207 

1,705,761,280..Regina. 28,113 


FEMALES. 

946,758 

680,852 

220,034 

157,114 

19,956 

54,162 

28,747 

28,333 


Totals.2,221,061,447 2,188,854 2,135,956 

Total population of Canada, 4,324,810. 


STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

ABBREVIATIONS — POPULAR NAMES—GOVERNOR’S TERM AND 
SALARY — POPULATION (1880) — RANK — AREA — ELECTORAL 
VOTE. 


Alabama. (Ala.) “ Here we rest.” Governor’s term, two 
years. Salary, $3,000 per annum. Population, 1,262,505. Rank, 
17. Area, 51,540. Electoral vote, 10. 

Arkansas. (Ark.) “Bow of smoky waters.” Popular name, 
“ Bear State.” Governor’s term, two years. Salary per annum, 
$3,000. Population, 802,525. Rank, 24. Area, 53,045. Elect¬ 
oral vote, 7. 

California. (Cal.) “ Hot furnace.” Popular name, “Golden 
State.” Governor’s term, four years. Salary per annum, $6,- 
000. Population, 864,694. Rank, 23. Area, 155,980. Electoral 
vote, 8. 



























POPULAR NAMES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


43 


Colorado. (Colo.) “Colored.” Governor's term, two years. 
Salary per annum, $5,000. Population, 194,329. Eank, 34. 
Area, 103,645. Electoral vote, 3. 

Connecticut. (Conn.) “ Long River.” Popular names, “ Free¬ 
stone State,” “ Nutmeg State.” Governor's term, two years. Sal¬ 
ary per annum, $2,000. Population, 622,700. Rank, 27. Area, 
4,845. Electoral vote, 6. 

Delaware. (Del.) Named after Lord De La War. Popular 
name, “The Diamond State.” Governor's term, four years. 
Salary per annum, $2,000. Population, 146,608. Rank, 36. 
Area, 1,960. Electoral vote, 3. 

Florida. (Fla.) “Flowery.” Popular name, “ Peninsular 
State.” Governor's term, four years. Salary per annum, $3,- 
500. Population, 269,493. Rank, 33. Area. 54,240. Electoral 
vote, 4. 

Georgia. (Ga.) Named after George II. of England. Pop¬ 
ular name, “Empire State of the South.” Governor's term, 
two years. Salary per annum, $3,000. Population, 1,542,180. 
Rank, 13. Area, 58,980. Electoral vote, 12. 

Illinois. (Ill.) “ Tribe of Men.” Popular names, “ Sucker 
State,” “ Prairie State.” Governor's term, four years. Salary, 
$6,000. Population, 3,077,871. Rank, 4. Area, 56,000. 
Electoral vote, 22. 

Indiana. (Ind.) From the Indians. Original meaning of 
India is River. Popular name is “ Hoosier State.” Governor's 
term, four years. Salary per annum, $5,000. Population, 
1,978,301. Rank, 6. Area, 35,910. Electoral vote, 15. 

Iowa. (Ia.) The sleepy ones.” Popular name, “ Hawk eye 
State.” Governor's term, two years. Salary per annum, $3,000. 
Population, 1,624,615. Rank, 10. Area, 55,475. Electoral 
vote, 13. 

Kansas. (Ks.) “ Smoky water.” Popular name, “Garden 
of the West.” Governor's term, two years. Salary per annum, 
$3,000. Population, 996,096. Rank, 20. Area, 81,700. Elect¬ 
oral vote, 9. 





46 


POPULAR NAMES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


term, one year. Salary per annum, $1,000. Population, 276,- 
531. Rank, 32. Area, 1,085. Electoral vote, 4. 

South Carolina. (S. C.) For Charles II. of England. Pop¬ 
ular name, “ Palmetto State/' Governor’s term, two years. 
Salary per annum, $3,500. Population, 995,577. Rank, 21. 
Area, 30,170. Electoral vote, 9. 

Tennessee. (Tenn.) “ River of the Big Bend." Popular 
name, “ Big Bend State. Governor's term, two years. Salary 
per annum, $4,000. Population, 1,542,359. Rank, 12. Area, 
41,750. Electoral vote, 12. 

Texas. (Tex.) “Friends." Popular name, “Lone Star 
State." Governor's term, two years. Salary per annum, $4,000. 
Population, 1,591,749. Rank, 11. Area, 262,290. Electoral 
vote, 13. 

Vermont. (Yt.) “Green Mountain." Popular name, 
“ Green Mountain State." Governor's term, two years. Salary 
per annum, $1,000. Population, 332,286. Rank, 31. Area, 
9,135. Electoral vote, 4. 

Virginia. (Va.) For Elizabeth, Queen of England. The 
“Virgin Queen." Popular names, “Mother of States," 
“Mother of Presidents," “Old Dominion." First settled of the 
thirteen states which united in the Declaration of Independence. 
Governor's term, four years. Salary per annum, $5,000. Popula¬ 
tion, 1,512,565. Rank, 14. Area, 40,125. Electoral vote 12. 

West Virginia. (W. Va.) Popular name, “ Panhandle State.'* 
Governor's term, four years. Salary per annum, $2,700. Pop¬ 
ulation, 618,457. Rank, 28. Area, 24,645. Electoral vote, 6. 

Wisconsin. (Wis.) “Flowing westward." Popular name, 
“ Badger State." Governor’s term, two years. Salary, per 
annum, $5,000. Population, 1,315,497. Rank, 16. Area, 
54,450. Electoral vote, 11. 

Arizona Territory. (Ariz.) “ Sandheels." Governor's term, 
four years. Salary per annum, $2,600. Population, 40,440. 
Rank, 42. Area, 112,920. 

North and /SoufA(Dak.) “Allied." Governor's term, four years. 


PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITE* STATES. 


47 


Salary per annum, $2,600. Population, 185,177. Bank, 88. 
Area, 147,700. 

Idnho . Governor’s term, four years. Salary per annum, 

$2,600. Population, 32,610. Rank, 44. Area, 84,290. 

Montana. (Mon.) Governor’s term, four years. Salary per 
annum, $2,600. Population, 128,163. Rank, 43. Area, 145,310. 

New Mexico. (N. M.) Governor’s term, four years. Salary 
per annum, $2,600. Population, 119,565. Rank 48. Area, 
122,460. 

Utah Ter. (Utah.) Named from the Indian tribe, “Utes.” 
Governer’s term, four years. Salary per annum, $2,600. Popu¬ 
lation, 143,968. Rank, 37. Area, 82,190. 

Washington. (Wash.) Named from President Washington. 
Governor’s term, four years. Salary per annum, $2,600. Popu¬ 
lation, 75,116. Rank, 40. Area, 66,880. 

Wyoming. (Wyo.) “Large Plains.) Governor’s term four 
years. Salary per annum, $2,600. Population, 120,789. Rank, 
45, Area, 97,575. 

District of Columbia. Population, 229,796. Area, 60, 

Total population,. 66,000,000. 

Total area,. 2,908,176 square miles. 

Total electoral vote,.401. 


POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF UNITED STATES. 
(Census 1890.) 


New York.1,513,501 

Chicago.1,098,576 

Philadelphia.1,044,894 

Brooklyn, N. Y.804,377 

St. Louis, Mo.460,367 

Boston, Mass.446,507 

Baltimore, Md.433,639 

San Francisco, Cal... .297,990 
Cincinnati, O.296,209 


Cleveland, O.261,546 

Buffalo, N. Y.255,543 

New Orleans, La.241,995 

Pittsburg, Pa.238,473 

Washington, D. C.228,160 

Detroit, Mich.207,791 

Milwaukee, Wis.203,979 

Newark, N. J.182,020 

Louisville, Ky.185,756 






















48 


PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Minneapolis, Minn.... 

,.164,780 

Reading, Pa. 

...58,750 

Jersey City, N. J. 

,.168,987 

Trenton, N. J. 

...68,484 

Omaha, Neb. 

.139,742 

Lynn, Mass. 

...55,684 

Rochester, N. Y. 

. 135,302 

Hartford, Conn. 

...53,182 

St. Paul, Minn...... 

.133,156 

Evansville, Ind. 

...50,674 

Providence, R. I. 

. 132,048 

Bridgeport, Conn. 


Denver, Colo. 

.126,186 

Oakland, Cal. 

...48,590 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

,.125,000 

Utica, N. Y. 

...45,000 

Kansas City, Mo. 

.105,000 

Lawrence, Mass. 

, ..44,559 

Allegheny, Pa.. .. 

.104,967 

Springfield, Mass. 


Scranton, Pa. 

...95,000 

Manchester, N. H_ 


Albany, N. Y.... 

..93,523 

Savannah, Ga. 

...41,762 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

..90,000 

St. Joseph, Mo. 


Columbus, 0. 

..90,398 

Peoria, Ill. 

...40,758 

New Haven, Conn.... 

.. 85,981 

New Bedford, Mass .. 

,. .40,705 

Worcester, Mass. 

..84,536 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

...40,164 

Toledo, 0. 

..82,652 

Erie, Pa. 


Richmond, Ya. 

..80,300 

Wheeling, W. Va.... 

.. .40,000 

Paterson, N. J.. . 

...78,300 

Portland, Me. 

...86,608 

Lowell, Mass. 

..77,605 

Quincy, Ill. 

...36,400 

Memphis, Tenn. 

.75,360 

Lancaster, Pa. 

...85,000 

Fall River, Mass. 

,..74,351 

Terre Haute, Ind. 

...30,289 

Grand Rapids, Mich... 


Cambridge, Mass. 

Dayton, 0. 

...69,837 

Area of Chicago: Length, 
north to south, 244 miles; width, 

Wilmington, Del. 

..61,437 

east to west, 144 miles; 

total area 

Troy, N. Y. 


of city, 175 square miles. 

UNITED STATES DEBT 

AT THE END OF EACH 



ADMINISTRATION. 


1796—George Washington. 


1800—John Adams... 



1808—Thomas Jefferson. 

.. 65,196,317 87 

1816—James Madison. 


... 127,334,933 74 

1824—James Monroe. 






















































COST OF THE CIVIL 

WAR. 49 

1828 — John Quincy Adams, 



67,445,043 87 

1836 — Andrew Jackson, 


• 

37,513 05 

1840—Martin Van Buren, 


• 

3,573,343 82 

1841—William H. Harrison, 


• 

5,250,875 54 

1844—John Tyler, 



23,461,652 50 

1848—James K. Polk, 



47,044,862 23 

1849—Zachary Taylor, 



63,061,858 69 

1852—Millard Filmore, 


• 

66,199,341 71 

1856—Franklin Pierce, 


• 

31,972,537 96 

1860 — James Buchanan, 


• 

64,842,287 88 

1865 — Abraham Lincoln 


• 

. 2,680,647,869 74 

1868 — Andrew Johnson 



. 2,611,687,851 19 

1876 — Ulysses S. Grant, 



. 2,180,395,067 15 

1880 — Rutherford B. Hayes 



'. 2,120,415,370 65 

1881 — James A. Garfield, 



. 2,069,013,569 58 

1883 — Chester A. Arthur 



. 1,884,171,728 07 


LOSSES IN AND COST OF THE CIVIL WAR. 


Federal soldiers killed in battle, 61,362. Died afterwards, 
34,727. Died of disease, 183,287. Total, 279,376. Deserted, 
199,105. 

Approximate loss of Confederates from wounds and disease, 
133,821. Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. Killed in 
action (estimated), 51,525. United States troops captured, 
212,608; Confederates, 476,169. Died while prisoners. 
United States troops, 29,725 ; Confederate, 26,774. Cost of 
war, direct and indirect, $6,189,929,908. 








CHAPTER V. 


IMMIGRATION. 



HE total number of immigrants from 1820 to 1882 
(June 30) was 11,597,181. In 1885 the number was 
395,346. 

The total number of Chinese in the census of 
1880 was 105,465. By a law passed in 1882 Chinese 
immigration has been stopped for ten years. 

By the same census the foreign born element in 
the United States formed 9.5 per cent of the popula¬ 
tion ; of that percentage 41.2 were natives of Great 
Britain, and two-thir ds of these were Irish. Of the 
total foreign born element 71 per cent came from 
Great Britain and Germany. Of New York City 
one-third, of the population is of foreign birth. In Chicago 40 
per cent of the population are foreigners, who represent the fol¬ 
lowing countries: Ireland, Prussia and German States, Canada, 
England, Sweden, Bohemia, Norway, Holland, Scotland, Bavaria, 
Poland, Denmark, Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, Switzerland, 
Russia, China, Australasia, South America, Spain, West Indies. 


INDIANS. 


There were in 1880 in the United States (including Alaska) 
339,098 Indians. Of these 243,527 inhabited the Indian Terri¬ 
tory, or were attached to the Indian agency; and 66,407 out¬ 
side, or tax-paying Indians. In 1882 the government spent 
nearly $10,000,000 on the Indians, and, in 1883, $7,362,590. 
There were 66 agencies throughout the states 

50 










NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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THE INDIAN RESERVATIONS. 


51 


The Indian reservations of the United States contain 200,000 
square miles, and their poplution is about 260,000. Twenty-six 
thousand square miles would locate each family upon a half¬ 
section of land, leaving a surplus of about 170,000 square miles, 
which would produce annually $4,480,000. This amount exceeds 
by about $660,000 the entire sum appropriated for the payment 
of their subsistence and civilization. Whilst some tribes ignore 
the interest taken in their welfare and civilization, there are 
other tribes who begin to see the wisdom of embracing the 
opportunities afforded them, and are gradually locating on farms 
and engaging in agricultural pursuits. Had they not so long 
and persistently fought against the inevitable, and had they 
accepted the path of civilization sooner, their present condition 
would have been less unfortunate and their race would now have 
been less decimated. 

Slowly but surely has each tribe diminished, until some have 
become extinct, whilst others have but a few of their members 
left. Among the more industrious tribes the Crow Indians 
are deserving of mention. Three hundred and ninety-seven 
families the Crows are located on four hundred farms allotted 
to them. As agriculturists these Indians are doing well, caring 
for their tracts under cultivation, two or three acres each, much 
better than many would suppose. 

The system of irrigation on their reservation promises to work 
well, and the Crows are rapidly becoming subservient to the 
ways of the white man. The Government has supplied them 
with excellent implements for farming, which they are beginning 
to use to advantage. They have four thousand head of good cat¬ 
tle, distributed over their four hundred farms, and between ten 
thousand and twelve thousand horses, which, while many of 
them are small ponies, represent a share of the extensive wealth 
for which the Crow nation is noted. 

The tolls collected on cattle passing through the reservation 
is a source of considerable revenue. Indian schools have been 
established in several States and Territories, agriculture being 
one of the main features. 


FOREIGN COUNTRIES, POPULA TION, GOVERNMENT, ETC. 


52 


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54 


LEGAL HOLIDAYS. 


LEGAL HOLIDAYS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

New Year’s Day, January 1st. Except in Arkansas, Dela¬ 
ware, Georgia, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hamp¬ 
shire, Rhode Island and North and South Carolina. 

Washington’s Birthday, Febuary 22nd. Except in Alabama, 
Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, 
Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee and Texas. 

Decoration Day, May 30th. Only in Colorado, Connecticut, 
Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont and Wisconsin. 

Independence Day, July 4th. A legal holiday in all the 
states and territories. 

Thanksgiving Day and public fast days, are appointed by 
the President of the United States and are legal holidays. Any 
state by proclamation of the Governor may create legal holidays 
set apart for religious observances. 

Days appointed for general elections, state or national, are 
legal holidays in California, Maine, Missouri, New Jersey, New 
York, Oregon, South Carolina and Wisconsin. 

January 8th., the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, 
February 12th., the anniversary of the birth of Abraham 
Lincoln, and March 4th., the Fireman's anniversary, are legal 
holidays in Louisiana. 

Good Friday. The friday before Easter Sunday is a legal 
holiday in Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota and Pennsylvania. 

Shrove Tuesday, the Tuesday before Lent is a legal holiday in 
Louisiana, and the cities of Alabama, Mobile, Montgomery 
and Selma. 

Memorial Day, April 20th., is a legal holiday in Georgia. 

March 2nd., the anniversary of the Independence of Texas, 
and April 21st., that of the battle of San Jacinto, are legal holi¬ 
days in Texas. 


SALARIES OF GOVERNMENT OFFICERS. 


55 


THE SALARIES OF THE PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE 
UNITED STATES. 

President . . 

Vice-President, .... 

Speaker of House, 

Heads of Departments, 

Assistants, .... 

Chiefs of Bureaus, .... 

Clerks, ..... 

Ministers to France, Germany, Great ) 

Britain and Russia, f 
Ministers to Austria, Brazil, China, ) 

Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain, f 
Ministers to Central America, Chili and Peru, 

Ministers to other countries. 

Secretaries of Legations, 

Consuls, ..... 

Senators, ..... 
Representatives, 

Clerks to the two Houses, 

Librarian of Congress, 

Public Printer, .... 

Commissioner of Agriculture, . • 

Chemist, . . . 

Clerks and assistants, . 

Superintendent of Coast Survey, . 

Superintendent of Life-saving Service, 

Supervising Surgeon-General, 

Supervising Inspector-General of Steamboats, 

Chief of Secret Service, 

Solicitor-General, Department of Justice, 

Assistant Attorneys-General, each, 

Solicitor of the Treasury, . 

Assistant, .... 


150,000 

• 

10,000 

• 

8,000 


8,000 

3,500 to 6,000 

2,400 to 5,000 

1,000 to 2,000 

• 

17,500 

• 

12,000 

• 

10,000 

4,000 to 7,500 

1,800 to 

► 3,000 

1,500 to 

» 6,000 

• 

7,000 

• 

5,000 

1,500 to 4,500 


4,000 

• 

3,600 


3,500 

• 

3,000 

1,000 to 2,000 

• 

6,000 

# 

4,000 

• 

4,000 

• 

3,500 


3,500 

• 

7,000 

• 

5,000 

• 

4,500 

• 

3,000 

rtment 

4,000 






56 


SALARIES OF GOVERXMENT OFFICERS. 


Examiner of Claims for State Department . . $3,500 

Chief Justice Supreme Court, . . . 10,500 

The eight Associate Justices, each . • . 10,000 

Clerk Supreme Court (estimated fees), . . 25,000 

Keporter, ... . 4,000 

Marshal, ...... 3,500 

Chief Justice and four associates, Court of Claims, each 4,500 
Clerk, ...... 3,000 

Circuit Judges, .... .6,000 


District Judges, .... 3,500 to 5,000 

The United States Government requires for the service of 
the two Houses a considerable staff of efficient officers. The 
Senate, when in session, has 160 to 170 employes in regular 
attendance at their distinctive duties ; the complete list includes 
chaplain, librarian, clerks, clerks to committees, postmaster, 
keepers, messengers, mail-carriers, door-keepers, laborers, 
page, etc., etc. 

The House when in session, has upon its pay-sheet over 250 
employes in similar capacities. 

The whole staff of officers required by the two Houses may 
be approximately stated at from 300 to 400. The complete list 
comprises librarian of Congress, assistants, clerks, mechanics. 


printers, binders, superintendents of grounds, police, laborers, 
and sundry minor officers. 

The Executive Department proper engages the services of 
about twenty subordinate officers. 

The various departments and branches of the administration 
require the services in all departments of a large force which 
may be’ stated in approximate numbers as follows : 

State Department, , . # .88 

Treasury Department, . . . . j 827 

War Department,.*900 

Navy Department, . 150 

PostofficeDepartment, . . * # g 670 

Interior Department, . * . # 1,260 


SALARIES OE GOVERNMENT OEEICERS. 


57 


Department of Justice, . • . . .50 

Department of Agriculture, ... 45 

Grand total ..... 6,990 

The requirements of the government necessarily involve a 
constant and steady increase in the numbers of the officers em¬ 
ployed for the wise and vigorous administration of its many and 
varied departments, and nothing is allowed to interfere with a 
thorough and efficient administration. 



CHAPTER VI. 


THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 


President of the United States is the Com- 
nder-in-chief of the army. In times of peace the 
ited States army consists of: 

Five regiments of artillery. 

Ten regiments of cavalry. 

Twenty-five regiments of infantry. 

An Adjutant-General’s Department. 

An Inspector-General’s Department. 

A Quartermaster’s Department. 

A Subsistence Department. 

A corps of engineers. 

A battalion of engineer-soldiers. 

An Ordnance Department. 

Enlisted men of the Ordnance Department. 

A Medical Department, with its corps of hospital stewards. 
A Pay Department. 

A Bureau of Military Justice. 

A force of Indian scouts, not exceeding 1,000. 

Officers on the army retired list. 

The Professors and Corps of Cadets. 

A millitary band at West Point Military Academy. 

NUMERICAL STRENGTH OF A REGIMENT. 

A Regiment of Artillery consists of twelve batteries, each 
of which is served by a force not exceeding 122 private soldiers; 
the maximum strength of each regiment is therefore 1,464. 

One battery in each regiment is equipped as light or flying 
artillery; to facilitate rapidity of motion seats are provided for 

58 













































































































. 






































■t 



















- 







































































* 




STRENGTH OF A REGIMENT. 


59 


the men who work it, and sufficient horses are supplied to en¬ 
able them to proceed at a gallop. 

A Regiment of Cavalry consists of twelve troops of mounted 
soldiers, each of which contains not more than 78 enlisted pri¬ 
vates, the maximum strength is therefore 936. 

A Regiment of Infantry contains 10 companies, and each 
company consists of from 50 to 100 privates, as the needs of the 
service may require. Two of the 25 regiments of infantry con¬ 
sist of colored men. The maximum number of enlisted men 
cannot at any time exceed 30,000. 

The Quartermaster’s Department purchases and dis¬ 
tributes to the army all military stores and supplies requisite for 
its use, which other corps are not legally required to provide ; to 
furnish means of transportation for the army, and its military 
stores and supplies ; and to provide for and pay for all incidental 
expenses of the military service, except as the law directs other 
corps so to provide. 

The Subsistence Department is administered by picked 
subordinate officers, whose duty it is to receive at each military 
post the subsistence supplies of the army, and to purchase and 
issue to the army such provisions as may be required for the 
rations of the army. 

The Corps of Engineers fulfill the important military duty 
of regulating and determining, with the approval of the Secre¬ 
tary of War, the number, form, dimensions and quality of all 
necessary vehicles, pontoons, tools, implements, arms, and 
other supplies for the use of the battalion of military engineers. 
This battalion consists of five companies of enlisted privates of 
the first and second class. The maximum strength of each 
company is 64 of each class. The enlisted men are instructed 
in the duties of sappers, miners, and pontooners. Engineers 
cannot be ordered on any duty beyond the line of their im¬ 
mediate profession except by the order of the commander-in¬ 
chief, the President of the United States. 

Upon The Ordnance Department devolves the important 


60 


THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 


duty of enlisting under the direction of the Secretary of War, 
master-armorers, master-carriage makers, and master-black¬ 
smiths, who are mustered in as sergeants ; subordinate armorers, 
carriage makers and blacksmiths, who are mustered as corporals ; 
artificers, who rank as privates of the first class ; and laborers as 
privates of the second class. The chief of ordnance organizes 
and details to other military organizations or garrisons such 
numbers of ordnance enlisted men, furnished with proper tools, 
carriages and apparatus as may be required, and makes regula¬ 
tions for their government; he also furnishes estimates, and, 
under the orders of the Secretary of War, makes contracts and 
purchases, for procuring the necessary supplies of ordnance and 
ordnance stores for the use of the United States army; he 
directs the inspection and proving of the same, and the con¬ 
struction of all cannon and carriages and all necessary imple¬ 
ments ; he establishes ordnance stores in such parts of the 
United States as may he deemed expedient; he executes all orders 
of the Secretary of War, and half-yearly, or oftener if required, 
he makes a report to the Secretary of War of all the officers 
and enlisted men in his department, and of all ordnance and 
ordnance stores under his command. 

The Army Medical Department supplies medical or 
surgical aid to members of the army ; has control of the pur¬ 
chase and distribution of medical supplies ; unites with the 
officers of the army in superintending the cooking done by the 
enlisted men; attends, under the direction of the surgeon-general, 
to the proper preparation of the rations for the enlisted men ; 
provides such quantities of preserved fruits, milk, butter and ' 
eggs as may be requisite for the proper diet of the sick in hos¬ 
pitals, and trusses for ruptured soldiers or pensioners. 

The Pay Department is charged with the punctual pay¬ 
ment of the troops. The paymaster-general is the President, and 
he engages as many assistant paymasters as may be requested 
for the prompt discharge of this duty. 

The Bureau of Military Justice has entire control of the 


SALARIES OE OFFICERS OF THE ARMY. 


61 


proceedings of courts-martial, courts of military inquiry, mili¬ 
tary commissions, etc. 

The Corps of Military Cadets consists of one from each 
congressional district in the United States ; one from each terri¬ 
tory ; one from the District of Columbia, and ten from the 
United States at large. The cadets receive their appointment 
from the President. Cadets are required to be between seven¬ 
teen and twenty-two years of age, and when any cadet has gone 
through the military classes of the Academy at West Point he 
becomes an eligible candidate for a position in any part of the 
army. 

PAY OF PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE ARMY. 

The General of the Army per annum . . . $13,500 

The General's staff consists of six aids, who rank as 
Colonels of Cavalry, and receive in addition to 
forage for two horses per annum . . . 3,500 

The Lieutenant-General per annum . . . 11,000 

The Lieutenant-General's staff comprises two aids and 
a Military Secretary, who rank as Lieutenant- 
Colonels of Cavalry, and receive forage for two 
horses and per annum ..... 3,000 

Three Major-Generals, forage for five horses each and 

per annum.. 7,500 

Each Major-General is entitled to three aids, who receive 
$200 per annum in addition to their pay as Cap¬ 
tains or Lieutenants. 

Six Brigadier-Generals per annum .... 5,500 

A Brigadier-General is allowed two aids who rank as 
Lieutenants, and claims forage for four horses. 

Colonels, forage for two horses, and per annum . . 3,500 

Lieutenant-Colonels, forage for two horses, and per 

annum ..3,000 

Majors, forage for two horses, and per annum . 2,500 

Captains, mounted, forage for two horses, and per annum 2,000 
Captains, not mounted, per annum .... 1,800 


62 


SALARIES OF OFFICERS OF THE ARMY. 


Adjutants, forage for two horses, and per annum . 1,800 

Regimental Quartermasters, forage for two horses and 

per annum ... .... 1,800 

First Lieutenants, mounted, forage for two horses and 

per annum . . .... . 1,600 

First Lieutenants, not mounted, per annum . . 1,500 

Second Lieutenants, mounted, forage for two horses 

and per annum ' . . . . . . 1,500 

Second Lieutenants, not mounted, per annum . 1,400 

Chaplains, forage for two horses and per annum . 1,500 

Acting-Assistant Commissaries, $100 per annum in 
addition to the pay of their rank. 

Ordnance Storekeeper and Paymaster at the Spring- 
field (Mass.) Armory, forage for two horses and 

per annum ..2,500 

Storekeepers, forage for two horses and per annum . 2,000 

Every commissioned officer below the rank of brigadier-gen¬ 
eral, including chaplains and others, whose rank or pay assimi¬ 
lates, are allowed ten per cent of their annual pay for each term 
of five years of service. 

Paymasters, when drawn from the civil service or commerce, 
are paid a salary of $1,200 per annum. 

Hospital stewards of the 1st class, $30 per month. 

Hospital stewards of the 2d class, $22 per month. 

Hospital stewards of the 3d class, $20 per month. 

Hospital matrons, one military ration and $10 per month. 
Hospital nurses, one military ration and 40 cents per day. 

Occasional extra services performed by non-commissioned 
officers entitle them to additional pay proportioned to service 
rendered. 

PAY OF ENLISTED MEN IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 

First terms of enlistment: 

Sergeant-Majors and Quartermaster Sergeants of Cavalry, 

Artillery and Infantry, per month . , . $23 


PAY OP ENLISTED MEN IN THE ARMY. 


63 


Chief trumpeters of Cavalry and principal musicians of 

artillery and infantry, per month .... $22 
Chief Musicians of regiments, allowances of a Quarter¬ 
master Sergeant and per month . • . . .60 

Saddler Sergeants of Cavalry and First Sergeants of Cav¬ 
alry, Artillery and Infantry, per month . . 22 

Sergeants of each force, per month . . . *17 

Corporals, Saddlers, Farriers and Blacksmiths, per month 15 
Trumpeters, Musicians and Privates, per month . . 13 

Sergeant-Majors of Engineers and Quartermaster Ser¬ 
geants of Engineers, per month . ... 36 

Sergeants of Engineers and Ordnance, per month . . 34 

First-class Privates of Engineers and Ordnance, per month 17 
Musicians and 2d-class Privates of Engineers, per month 13 

These rates of pay are increased by the addition of $1 per 
month for the third year, the fourth year and the fifth year, mak¬ 
ing $3 per month increase for the last year of service; but these 
increases are not paid until the soldier's term is ended, and if he 
misconducts himself previous to his discharge, the whole amount 
of “ retained pay " is subject to forfeit. Privates may earn 
additional pay for extra service. 

The Pay Department of the Navy is conducted by a corps of 
13 pay-directors, 13 pay-inspectors, 50 paymasters and 50 assist¬ 
ant-paymasters. 

The same limits of age are observed in this department as 
for staff officers. The physical, mental and moral qualities of 
all candidates must be tested and approved by a board of pay¬ 
masters. All appointments to this corps are made by the Presi¬ 
dent, and he also appoints one to every fleet or squadron, who is 
recognized as the “ Paymaster of the Fleet." 

The Engineer Corps of the Navy consists of 75 engineers, 
divided into three grades: 10 rank as captains, 15 as com¬ 
manders, 45 as lieutenant-commanders or lieutenants. One 
selected by the President is the “ Engineer of the Fleet." There 
are also 100 first-assistant engineers who rank as lieutenants; 


64 THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

and 100 second-assistant engineers who rank as masters or 
ensigns. 

Twenty-four Chaplains are appointed by the President. The 
minimum age for this service is, at time of appointment, 21 
years, and the maximum, 35 years. No restrictions of form or 
creed are imposed upon these naval ministers. 

Professors of Mathematics to the number of 12 may be ap¬ 
pointed to the Navy by the President. Three rank as captains, 
four as commanders, five as lieutenant-commanders. Their ser¬ 
vices may be required in ships of war, at the naval observatory, 
or at the naval academy. 

Naval constructors, storekeepers, are selected and receive 
appointment by the President as the exigencies of the service 
may demand. 

THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The Secretary of the Navy is an important member of the 
President’s Cabinet. Eight Naval Bureaus have been duly author¬ 
ized, to which the whole of the arrangements of the Naval Deoart- 
ments have been assigned, namely: 

The Bureau of Yards and Docks; 

The Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting; 

The Bureau of Navigation ; 

The Bureau of Ordnance; 

The Bureau of Construction and Repair; 

The Bureau of Steam-Engineering; 

The Bureau of Provisions and Clothing; 

The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. 

The first five of these Bureaus are presided over by a specially 
selected skilled naval officer; the sixth by a distinguished naval 
engineer; the seventh by a well-proved paymaster of the navy; 
and the eighth by an eminent surgeon of the navy. The chiefs 
of Bureaus are appointed by the President; receive the pay per¬ 
taining to their station in the navy, and continue in office for a 
term of four years. 


THE NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


65 


The Hydrographic Office is a department of the Bureau of 
Navigation. The special duty assigned to this office is to provide 
accurate and inexpensive nautical charts, sailing directions, 
navigators, and manuals of instruction for the use of vessels of 
the navy and merchant marine. Greater safety and economy 
are thus ensured. 

Nautical Observations are regularly made at the Naval Observ¬ 
atory at Washington ; these are published, together with the 
astronomical observations, in the “ Nautical Almanac,” which 
is revised annually by a naval officer or naval professor of 
mathematics specially appointed by the Secretary of War. The 
observatory is in charge of a naval officer, who receives only the 
salary to which his rank entitles him. 

The meridian of the naval observatory at Washington is 
recognized as the American meridian for all astronomical pur¬ 
poses; and for all nautical observations the meridian of Greenwich, 
England, is still preserved. 

* 

OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY. 

The officers of the United States Navy on active service are 
as follows : 1 Admiral, 1 Vice-Admiral, 10 Rear-Admirals, 26 
Commodores, 50 Captains, 90 Commanders, 80 Lieutenant- 
Commanders, 280 Lieutenants, 100 Masters, 100 Ensigns and 
Midshipmen. 

The list of officers in the Medical Corps of the Navy is as 
follows : 15 each Medical Directors and Medical Inspectors, 50 
Surgeons and 100 Assistant-Surgeons. The President bestows 
every appointment to the Medical Naval Staff, but no person 
can receive any appointment unless he has been examined and 
approved by the examining board of Naval Surgeons. Twenty- 
one years of age is the minimum and 26 years the maximum ap¬ 
pointed for candidates for this service. The surgeons are se¬ 
lected by the President, and he appoints to every fleet or squad¬ 
ron a surgeon of the Flag-Ship with the title “Surgeon of the 
Fleet.” 

5 


66 


THE NATIONAL DEBT. 


REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 


The revenue of the United States is mainly derived from two 
sources, viz. duties on imports, and internal revenue taxes on 
distilled spirits, fermented liquors, tobacco, banks and bank¬ 
ing. The natural expenditure is mainly on account of the war, 
and navy departments, pensions, payment of interest on the 
public debt, and the civil service. 

Table (year ending June 30) from 1876 to 1885. 


REVENUES. 

1876— 290,066,584 

1877— 269,000,586 

1878— 257,763,878 

1879— 273,827,184 

1880— 333,526,610 

1881— 360,782,293, 

1882— 403,525,250 

1883— 398,287,582, 

1884— 348,519,869. 

1885— 323,690,706, 


EXPENDITURE. 

..265,101,084 
. .238,660,008 
. .236,964,326 
. .266,947,883 
..267,642,957 
..260,712,888 
..257,981,439 
..265,408,137 
..244,126,244 
..260,226,395 


These figures are exclusive of loans in the revenue and 
expenditure other than interest and premiums in connection 
with the public debt. 

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE FOR 1885. 


Customs.$181,471,939 

Internal Revenue... 112,498,726 

Tax on National Banks. 2,914,222 
Other sources of revenue 26,804,813 


$323,690,706 

305,830,970 


Surplus.$ 17,859,736 


Civil expenses. $23,826,942 

Foreign intercourse.... 5,439,609 

Indians. 6,552,495 

Pensions. 56,102,268 

Military Establishment 42,670,578 

Naval Establishment... 16,021,080 

Public buildings, col¬ 
lecting revenue, etc.. 54,728,056 

District of Columbia... 3,499,651 

Interest on public debt. 51,386.256 

Sinking Fund. 45,604,035 


$305,830,970 

It will be observed that Pensions form the largest item of expenditure. 
THE NATIONAL DEBT. 

* 

On November l a 1885, the national debt amounted to $1,303^ 























Comparative Diagram Showing 

THE NATIONAL PUBLIC DEBTS 

OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 

























V 

















































































v 

































































































































. ■■ 



THE NATIONAL DEBT. 


67 


034,056 (but at this date, 1888, it amounts to little over one 
billion); the United States were also liable for $64,623,512 bonds 
issued to the Pacific railways, which pay over five per cent of 
their net earnings to the government. The bulk of the debt 
was originally contracted at 6 and 5 per cent, but more than half 
of the interest-bearing debt is now at 4 per cent and the rest at 
3, 3£, and 4} per cent. 

In 1883 the local debts in nearly all the states reached the 
total of $263,888,353. 

VALUE OF PRODUCTS. 

The total value of the products of agriculture, manufactures, 
mining, forestry and fisheries in the United States for the year 
ending June 30,1883, was estimated in round figures at $10,000,- 
000,000. 

CRIMINALS AND PAUPERS. 

In 1880 there were 59,225 criminals in prison, of whom 5,069 
were women. 

The various states have poor-laws, but statistics are only kept 
of indoor paupers, of whom in 1880 there were 67,067. 

The assessed value of real property in the United States in 
1880 was $13,036,766,925, and of personal property, $3,866,- 
226,618. 

EMPLOYMENT AND WAGES IN U. S. FACTORIES. 

In 1880 there were employed in the various manufactories of 
the United States, 2,738,930 hands,. The total amount of wages 
paid during the year was $947,919,674, being an average of over 
$350 per hand, whether retained or discharged. Value of man¬ 
ufacturing products, $5,000,000,000. 









CHAPTER VII. 


POSTAL ARRANGEMENTS OF THE UNITED 
STATES 


HE POSTMASTER-GENERAL is appointed by 
the President, and his term of office is co-terminous 
with the presidency. 

Three Assistant Postmasters-General are re¬ 
quired by this important department of executive 
government; they are appointed by the President. 

An Assistant Attorney-General is appointed by 
the Postmaster-General for the service of the Post- 
office Department. 

An oath of fidelity is required of all persons en¬ 
tering this service. 

The great responsibilities of the Postmaster-Gen¬ 
eral involve a vast ^diversity of duties, the details of which are 
mainly interesting to himself, but the pivot of the whole system 
is the shillful division of labor, and the thorough supervision 
of every department. In Chicago and other large cities five 
divisions include all the operations of the Postoffice Department. 

The Executive Department. The Assistant Postmaster, 
the Auditor of Postoffice Accounts, the book-keeper, the cashier 
and the watchmen are responsible for the duties of this depart¬ 
ment. 

The Mailing Department. The receipt and dispatch of 
all mail-matter passing through the office comprise the duties 
of the officers of this branch. 

The Delivery Department is devoted to the delivering of 
68 



















POSTAL ARRANGEMENTS. 


. 69 

all mail-matter by the free delivery, the box delivery, the letter 
carriers, etc. 

The Registered-Letter Department is invaluable for the 
registry of all letters and parcels containing valuables, and the 
conveyance and delivery of the same to persons fully authorized 
to receive them. 

The Money Order Department issues money orders upon any 
postoffice in the United States and some foreign countries, and 
money orders received are cashed for any one entitled to receive 
payment. 

Special Agents of the Postoffice Department are employed to 
superintend the Railway Postal Service, and the Free-Delivery 
and Money-Order Departments of the service. 

The Postoffice Stamp Department comprises arrangements 
for wholesale and retail operations. Merchants and others buy 
stamps by the sheet or in greater quantities, stamped envelopes 
and postal cards by the hundreds. In the retail department sales 
extend from a one-cent stamp to a dozen or more of any required 
value. 

All letters properly stamped and addressed are sorted and dis¬ 
tributed as promptly as possible by a large staff of sorters and 
carriers. 

All letters insufficiently stamped or inaccurately addressed, 
or left unclaimed in the General Delivery Department after being 
duly advertised are sent to the Dead-Letter Office of the Post- 
office Department at Washington. If the address of the sender 
is ascertained, letters, etc., are returned to them. 

Registered Letters incur a fee of 10 cents in addition to the 
ordinary postage. 

A receipt for the registered letter is always given to the per¬ 
son registering. 

Money Orders for any part of the United States are limited 
to the amount of $100, and no one person or firm can send more 
than three orders amounting to $100 each to the same person or 
firm in any one day. Money orders are payable only to the persons 


70 


POSTAL ARRANGEMENTS. 


in whose name they are drawn; hut the right to collect the amount 
may be transferred by the drawee, by writing on the money order 
itself the name of the receiver. This can only be done by the 
person in whose favor the order is originally drawn. 

After a money order has been issued, if the purchaser desires 
to have it modified or changed, the postmaster who issued it can 
take it back, and issue a new one, for which a new fee has to be 
paid. 

RATES OF POSTAGE. 

Letters . —Prepaid by stamps, 2 cents each ounce or fraction 
thereof to all parts of the United States and Canada; forwarded 
to another postoffice without charge on request of the person 
addressed ; if not called for, returned to the writer free, if in¬ 
dorsed with that request. If the stamp is omitted the letter is 
forwarded to the Dead Letter Office, and returned to the 
writer. For registering letters the charge is 10 cents additional. 
Drop letters at letter-carrier offices, 2 cents per ounce or frac¬ 
tion thereof; at other offices, 1 cent per ounce or fraction 
thereof. On insufficiently prepaid matter mailed in Canada, 3 
cents per -J ounce or fraction thereof. Stamped postal cards, 
furnished only by government, 1 cent each ; if anything except 
a printed address slip is pasted on a postal card, or anything 
but the address- written on the face, letter postage is charged. 
Postage on all newspapers and periodicals sent from newspaper 
offices to any part of the United States, to regular subscribers, 
must be paid in advance at the office of mailing. 

Second-Class Matter .—Periodicals issued at regular intervals, 
at least four times a year, and having a regular list of sub¬ 
scribers, with supplement, sample copies, 1 cent a pound; peri¬ 
odicals, other than weekly, if delivered by letter-carrier, 1 cent 
each; if over 2 ounces, 2 cents each. When sent by other 
than publishers, for 4 ounces or less, 1 cent. 

Third-Class Matter (not exceeding 4 pounds).—Printed 
matter, books, proof-sheets, corrected or uncorrected, unsealed 


RATES OF POSTAGE. 


71 


circulars, inclosed so as to admit of easy inspection without cut¬ 
ting cords or wrapper, 1 cent for each 2 ounces. 

Fourth-Class Matter .—Not exceeding 4 pounds, embracing 
merchandise and samples, excluding liquids, poisons, greasy, 
inflammable, or explosive articles, live animals, insects, etc., 1 
cent an ounce. Postage to Canada and British North Ameri¬ 
can states, 2 cents per ounce; must be prepaid ; otherwise 6 
cents. 

Postage Rates to Foreign Countries. —To the countries and 
colonies which, with the United States, comprise the Universal 
Postal Union, the rates of postage are as follows : Letters, per 
15 grams (-J ounce), prepayment optional, 5 cents; postal cards, 
each, 2 cents; newspapers and other printed matter, per 2 
ounces, 1 cent. Commercial papers—First 10 ounces or frac¬ 
tion thereof, 5 cents ; every additional 2 ounces, 1 cent. Sam¬ 
ple of merchandise — First 4 ounces, 2 cents; every additional 
2 ounces, 1 cent. Registration fee on letters or other articles, 
10 cents. All correspondence other than letters must be pre¬ 
paid at least partially. 

Printed matter other than books received in the mails from 
abroad under the provisions of postal treaties or conventions is 
free from customs duty. 

Dutiable books forwarded to the United States from the 
Postal Union are delivered to addresses at postoffices of destina¬ 
tion upon payment of the duties levied thereon. 

Postal Money Orders .—The limit of a single money order is 
$100, instead of $50, as formerly. The fees charged are as 
follows: 

Cents . 

For orders not exceeding $10. 8 


For orders from $10 to $15. 10 

For orders from $15 to $30. 15 

For orders from $30 to $40. 20 

For orders from $40 to $50. 25 

For orders from $50 to $60. 80 








72 


RATES OF POSTAGE. 


Cents . 


For orders from $60 to $70. 35 

For orders from $70 to $80. 40 

For orders from $80 to $100. 45 


To Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Canada, 
Newfoundland, Italy, France, Algeria, New South Wales, Vic¬ 
toria, Tasmania, New Zealand, Jamaica: Fees, for not exceed¬ 
ing $10, 15 cents; $10 to $20, 30 cents; $20 to $30, 45 cents; 
$30 to $40, 60 cents; $40 to $50, 75 cents. To Great Britain 
and Ireland and adjacent islands : Fees, for not exceeding $10, 
25 cents; $10 to $20, 50 cents; $20 to $30, 70 cents; $30 to 
$40, 85 cents; $40 to $50, $1. To British India: Fees, for 
sums not exceeding $10, 35 cents; not exceeding $20, 70 cents ; 
not exceeding $30, $1; not exceeding $40, $1.25 ; not exceeding 
$50, $1.50. 

POSTAL RATES CHARGED BY CANADIAN GOVERNMENT, FOR DE¬ 
LIVERY IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, ETC. 

Letters to any place in Canada or the United States, 

for each half ounce or fraction thereof . . 3 cents 

Letters for Newfoundland and Great Britain, for each 

half ounce or fraction thereof, . . 5 cents 

City or drop letters, .. .1 cent 

Postal cards for Canada and the United States, . . 1 cent 

Postal cards for Great Britain,.2 cents 

Books for Canada and the United States (limited 5 

pounds) for each 4 ounces, .... 1 cent 

Books for Great Britain, for each 2 ounces, . . 1 cent 

Newspapers for Canada and the United States, for 


each 4 ounces, ....... 1 cent 

Newspapers for Great Britain, for each 2 ounces. . 1 cent 

Parcels for Canada only (limit 5 pounds) for each 4 

ounces, ••••••,. 6 cents 






RATES OF POSTAGE. 


73 


Parcels for Manitoba limited to 2 pounds 3 ounces. 

No parcels post for United States or Great Britain. 

Samples, not exceeding 1£ pounds, to any part of 

Canada, for each 4 ounces,.4 cents 

Samples for the United States, not exceeding 8 ounces, 8 cents 
Samples for Great Britain, not exceeding 8 ounces, 

2 cents for first 4 ounces, and 1 cent for each 
additional ounce. 

REGISTRATION FEES CHARGED BY CANADIAN GOVERNMENT. 

On letters for Canada, each,.2 cents 

On letters for United States and Great Britain, each 5 cents 
Parcels and samples for Canada, each . . .5 cents 

Books for Great Britain, each.5 cents 

FOREIGN POSTAGE FROM CANADA. 

Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, 
Gibraltar, Greece and Ionian Isles, Italy, Japan, Malta, Nether¬ 
lands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, 
Turkey : Letters, 5 cents each i ounce; postal cards, 3 cents 
each; books, 1 cent each 2 ounces; newspapers, 2 cents each 
4 ounces ; registration, 5 cents. 

Australia, except Victoria, New South Wales and Queens¬ 
land : Letters, 7 cents each i ounce; books, 3 cents each 2 
ounces. 

New Zealand, Victoria, New South Wales arid Queensland : 
Letters, 15 cents each i ounce; newspapers, 4.cents each 4 
ounce. Books, 6 cents each 2 ounces. Registration, 15 cents. 

MONEY ORDERS ISSUED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF CANADA. 

On orders payable within the Dominion—limit $100. 

On orders up to $4.00 2cts. Over $40.00 up to $60.00 30cts. 
Ovei $4.00 up to $10.00 5 “ “ 60.00 “ 80.00 40 “ 

“ 10.00 “ 20.00 10 “ “ 80.00 “ 100.00 50 “ 

“ 20.00 “ 40.00 20 “ 

On money orders payable in the United Kingdom, United 





74 


HINTS ABOUT CORRESPONDENCE. 


States, all Foreign Countries and British Possessions—limit of 
amount of any issue $50. 

On orders up to $10.00 10 cts. Over $30.00 up to $40.00 40cts. 
Over $10.00 up to 20.00 20 “ 40.00 “ 50.00 50 “ 

“ 20.00 “ 30.00 30 “ 

USEFUL HINTS RELATING TO CORRESPONDENCE AND POSTAGE. 

Be careful to give the name of the town and state in which 
you reside, at the top of the first page of your letter, or print it 
and your name on the outside of the envelope, that in case of non¬ 
delivery it may he returned to you from the Dead Letter Office, 
Washington, or the general office. 

Give your name and address on the left-hand corner of 
books, parcels, etc., that they may he returned if not delivered. 

State clearly and in full the name of the state as well as the 
town to which your mailed matter is addressed. This facilitates 
prompt and sure delivery. 

Always write “ transient" or “ General Delivery ” on mailed 
matter addressed to persons not residing where you forward to 
them. 

Register all letters and packages containing valuables. The 
fee for registration is only ten cents, which with the postage must 
he fully prepaid. The name and address of the sender must be 
written on the outside of the envelope or wrapper of all registered 
letters and packages. This insures the utmost attainable certainty 
of the safe delivery of such letters, etc. 

In sending postal cards be careful to write nothing more 
than the name and address of the person to whom you send it, 
on the stamped side. If this rule is not observed or anything is 
attached to the postal card letter postage will be charged. 

All manuscripts for magazines, periodicals and newspapers, 
and all music and book manuscript must be enclosed with proof- 
sheets of the same or be certified as MSS. for printer only, 
with your name and address, or they will be charged full letter 
rates. As MSS. they cost only one cent for each two ounces. 


HINTS ABOUT CORRESPONDENCE. 


75 


The safety of the P. 0. service requires the recognition of 
the rule “ that no poisons, liquids, inflammable and explosive 
articles, fatty substances easily liquefiable, insects (except queen 
bees), live or dead animals not stuffed, reptiles, confectionery, 
paste or confections, fruits or vegetable matter, and substances 
exhaling a bad odor, must not be sent by mail.” 

Equally important is the moral rule “that no post-card and 
no letter upon the envelope of which obscene, lewd, indecent or 
lascivious drawings, terms, epithets, or language may be written 
or printed, and no matter containing lotteries, so-called gift con¬ 
certs or other similar enterprises, offering prizes, or concerning 
schemes devised and intended to defraud the public, or for the 
purpose of obtaining money or'goods under false pretenses, shall 
in any case be transmitted by mail in the United States of 
America.” 

All mail-matter of any sort, either domestic or foreign, lost 
in transmission, should be inquired for as soon as the loss is 
known, in order that any dishonest practices may be traced and 
checked. Inquiries should be addressed to the chief inspector, 
Postoffice department, Washington, D. 0. 

Inquiries relating to mail-matter known to have been sent 
to the Dead Letter Office, Washington, may be addressed to the 
third assistant postmaster-general. 

In all letters of inquiry for lost mailed matter the fullest possi¬ 
ble particulars must be given; the name and address of the writer 
and sender ; the place and time at which the matter was mailed ; 
and a full description of the contents. If it is known when or why 
the matter was sent to the Dead Letter Office this also should be 
stated. In the event of the loss of any registered mail-matter 
the number of the register should be given ; for this reason it is 
important to keep the receipt for registration. 

All first-class matter, when one full rate postage fee has 
oeen prepaid, and all other matter when fully prepaid, may, at 
the request of the person to whom it is addressed, be forwarded, 
from one postoffice to another. Postmasters can return or for- 


76 ITEMS CONCERNING POSTOFEICES AND LETTERS. 


ward second, third and fourth class mail-matters only when a suf¬ 
ficient amount is forwarded to pay the postage fees for re-mailing. 
A printed or written request on such mail-matter asking post¬ 
masters to notify senders of non-delivery of the same and the 
amount required for re-mailing will be duly answered. 

Good envelopes should be used for all mailed letters, as the 
thin, poor quality envelopes often split, and excite unjust suspic¬ 
ions against the postoffice employes. 

Prepayment of one full rate of postage on first-class matter 
will insure its transmission ; any deficiency on postal rate will be 
collected from the receiver. All other matter must be fully pre¬ 
paid or it will not be forwarded. 

ITEMS CONCERNING POSTOFFICES AND LETTERS. 

Postoffices were first established in a.d. 1464; the growth 
of this institution has been so great and rapid that the following 
figures represent the present facts with regard to the people who 
write and receive letters: 

Australians receive more letters and post-cards than any other 
people, the annual average being twenty-four to each person. 
Europeans come next with about fourteen each. An Asiatic 
gets only 40-100 of a letter or post-card, and an African only 
9-100. In Europe there were mailed in 1885, 3,894,100,000 let¬ 
ters and 597,500,000 post-cards, in America 1,596,800,000 letters 
and 398,000,000 post-cards, in Asia 246,000,000 letters and 
80,000,000 post-cards, in Australia 93,400,000 letters and. 1,200,- 
000 post-cards, and in Africa 18,700,000 letters and 300,000 
post-cards. The total number of pieces of matter mailed in 
Europe in 1885 was 7,249,300,000, in America 3,819,000,000, in 
Asia 389,600 000, in Australia 151,400,000, and in Africa 30,- 
700,000. 

THE UNITED STATES MINT. 

The first building erected in the United States for public 
use under the authority of the federal government, was a struct¬ 
ure for the United States Mint. This was a plain brick edifice. 


THE UNITED STATES HINT. 


77 


on the east side of Seventh street, near Arch, Philadelphia. 
The Mint was established by act of Congress in 1792, and the 
corner-stone was laid on July 31 of that year. The building 
was occupied for about forty years, and in 1829 an act was 
passed locating the Mint on its present site in Chestnut street. 

The first coinage of the United States was silver half dimes 
in October, 1792, of which Washington makes mention in his 
address to Congress in November of that year. The first metal 
purchased for coinage was six pounds of old copper at one 
shilling and three pence a pound, which was coined and deliv¬ 
ered to the treasurer in 1793. The first deposit of silver bullion 
was made on July 18, 1794, by the bank of Maryland. It con¬ 
sisted of “ coins of France ” amounting to $80,715.73£. The 

first deposit of gold bullion for coinage was made by Moses 
Brown, merchant, Boston, on February 12,1795 ; it was of gold 
ingots, worth $2,276.72, and was paid for in silver coins. The 
first return of gold coinage was on July 31, 1795, and consisted 
of 744 half eagles. The first delivery of eagles was on Septem¬ 
ber 22 same year, and consisted of 400 pieces. 

The coinage up to the end of the year 1800 may be stated in 
round numbers at $2,534,000 ; that of the decade ending with 
1810 amounted to $6,971,000 ; and within the ten years ending 
1820, $9,380,000 ; 1830, $18,000,000. The coinage for the fiscal 
year ending June 30, 1884, was gold coinage, $27,932,824. 00 ; 
silver coinage, $28,108,227.00. 

The coin in circulation in the United States in 1884 was 
estimated at, gold $552,000,000; silver, $250,000,000. The net 
gain to the coin circulation was $14,000,000 in gold, and 
$22,000,000 in silver. The total amount coined at the different 
mints and assay offices was $5,433,102.64 and the total expendi¬ 
tures, and losses of all kinds amounted to $1,676,002.73. The 
deposits and purchases of gold and silver bullion at the Phila¬ 
delphia mint amounted to $16,802,750.40. 

HISTORY OF THE TRADE DOLLAR. 

The coinage of the trade dollar was authorized by act of 


78 


THE UNITED STATES MINT. 


Congress February 12, 1873, and was not intended for circula¬ 
tion in the United States, but for export to China. It was 
designed to compete with the Spanish and Mexican dollar. 
That empire having no mint for the coinage of gold and silver, 
depended upon foreign coin for it domestic circulation, and 
until the institution of the trade dollar the principal shipments 
of coin to China were in the form of Mexican dollars. 

The trade dollar was made a little more valuable than the 
American and Mexican dollar, thus not only affording a market 
for the surplus silver of the mines of the Pacific coast, but fur¬ 
nishing merchants and importers from China with silver in a 
convenient form for payment for commodities, instead of their 
being obliged to purchase Mexican dollars for that purpose. 

Until 1876 it was a legal tender to the amount of five dollars, 
but in that year this was repealed. 

THE STANDARD SILVER DOLLAR. 

Its coinage was authorized, April 2, 1792. Weight 416 
grains, standard silver ; fineness 892.4. Weight changed Janu¬ 
ary 18, 1837, to 412£ grains; fineness 900. Coinage discon¬ 
tinued Act February 12, 1873. Coinage revived. Act February 
28, 1878, two million dollars per month required to be coined, 
and issue made legal for all debts, public and private. 

The dollar did not originate with the Spanish, but was first 
coined at Joachinsthal, a mining town in Bohemia. 

THE CABINET FOR COINS AND RELICS. 

The cabinet of the Mint contains a wonderful and most 
interesting collection. Here are the standard test-scales, used 
to test the weights sent to all the mints and assay offices in the 
United States. They are exact to the twenty thousandth part 
of an ounce. Among the curiosities are three images of pure 
gold from graves in the Island of Chirique, off Central America. 
There is a choice selection of mineral specimens; and a collec¬ 
tion of ancient and modern coins of all lands. One of the most 
valuable coins is the silver dollar of 1804. It is said that the 
























































































* 












1 

































- 

: : ' 

















■t 







. 



THE UNITED STATES MINT. 


79 


scarcity of this dollar is due to the sinking of a China-bound 
vessel, containing almost the entire mintage of that year, in lieu 
of Spanish milled dollars. It is believed that not more, or possi¬ 
bly eight genuine 1804 dollars, are extant. 

VISITING THE MINT. 

The Mint is open to the public daily, Sundays and holidays 
excepted, from 9 to 12 a.m. Visitors are met by courteous 
ushers, who attend them through the various departments. 

STANDARD WEIGHTS. 

The earliest series of standard weights known are two sets 
discovered by Mr. Layard in the ruins of Nineveh. They are 
now in the British Museum. The old Saxon pound was the ear¬ 
liest standard in England. It was identical in weight with the 
old apothecaries* pound of Germany and equal to 5,400 of our 
later troy grains. The pound sterling was determined from this 
weight in silver. The idea of the gram was borrowed by the 
English from the French. The Black Prince brought back 
with him from France the pound Troye, which was derived 
from the commercial town of that name. Troy weight was 
adopted by druggists and jewelers for its convenient reduction 
into grains. 

The pound avoirdupois (French avoir-du-poids, “ to have 
weight”) equals 7,000 grains troy. In 1834, the English stand¬ 
ards of weight and measure, consisting of a yard and pound 
troy of brass, were destroyed by fire at the burning of the 
Houses of Parliament. The unit of weight in the United States 
is a troy pound weight, obtained from England, a duplicate of 
the original standard fixed by the commission of 1858, and reas¬ 
serted by the commission in 1838. It is a bronze of 5,760 grains 
troy, in a strong safe in the United States Mint in Philadelphia. 
All of the scales and delicate test instruments in use by the 
government are manufactured in this country. 


VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY. 


80 


VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS, 


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UNITED STATES BONDS. 


81 


UNITED STATES BONDS. 

Interest is calculated on United States bonds and on the 
public debt at 365 days to the year, and is due semi-annually. 

By five-twenties is meant the 6 per cent gold-bearing 
bonds of the United States, which are to mature in twenty 
years, but which the government, by giving due notice, can 
pay in gold any time after five years from date of issue. 

The old five-twenties were the first issue. They bear date 
May 1, 1862, and are redeemable after May 1, 1867, and paya¬ 
ble May 1, 1882. The new five-twenties were issued November 
1, 1864, July 1, 1865 and November 1, 1865. 

By ten-forties is meant the 5 per cent gold-bearing bonds 
which are to mature in forty years, but which may be paid by 
the government at any time after ten years. 

By seven-thirties is meant a currency loan, which matures 
in three years, at which time they may be changed for the five- 
twenty 7 per cent bonds, bearing interest in gold. The name 
is derived from the rate of interest, it being 7.3 per cent. The 
“First Series" bear date August 15, 1864. The “Second 
Series" bear date June 15, 1865, and are convertible June 15, 
1868. The “ Third Series " bear date July 5, 1865. On this 
issue the government reserves the right to pay the interest at 6 
per cent in gold, instead of 7.30 percent in currency. 

By six per cent of 1881 is meant the 6 per cent gold-bearing 
bonds, which cannot be increased by government, except by 
purchase, until after maturity. 









CHAPTER VIII. 


BRIEF BIOGRAPHIES OF THE PRESIDENTS OF 
THE UNITED STATES. 


EORGE WASHINGTON, first President, was born in 
Virginia, February 22, 1732; was appointed aide-de- 
camp to General Braddock in 1755, and shortly after¬ 
ward Chief of the Forces of Virginia; was delegate to 
the congress of 1774; appointed Commander-in-Chief 
of the American armies 1775, a p.osition which he re¬ 
tained throughout the War of Independence; was 
inaugurated President of the United States, April 30, 
1789, and served two terms of four years each. He 
died at Mount Vernon, Va., December 14, 1799, in 
his sixty-eighth year. 

John Adams, second President, was born in the town 
of Barntree, now Quincy, Mass., October 30,1735; he graduated 
at Harvard at the age of twenty, and afterward studied and prac¬ 
ticed law successfully. Together with Thomas Jefferson he was 
appointed by the Continental Congress to draft the Declaration 
of Independence; was sent as delegate to France in 1777 and 
1779, and Special Envoy to England in 1785. He was Vice- 
President during the entire Presidency of Washington, and suc¬ 
ceeded him in the President’s office. He died on July 4, 1826, 
in the ninetieth year of his age. 

Thomas Jefferson, third President, was born in Albemarle 
county, Va., April 2, 1743. He studied at William and Mary 
College and graduated there', when he devoted himself to the 
legal profession. He was chosen a member of the Virginia Leg¬ 
islature in 1760, and, although a large slaveholder, introduced 

82 
















PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


83 


a bill to legalize the manumission of slaves. He drafted the 
Declaration of Independence. He held the positions of Governor 
of Virginia, 1779; Minister to England, 1782; and Minister to 
France, 1784. He became Secretary of State in 1789, Vice-Pres¬ 
ident, 1797, and was inaugurated as President in 1801, retaining 
that position for eight years. Died at Monticello, Va., July 4, 
1826, aged eighty-three years. 

James Madison, fourth President, jvasborn in Orange county, 
Va., 1751. Graduated at Princeton College at the age of twenty. 
In 1776 he gave leading assistance in the Virginia Convention 
toward the framing of a State Constitution, and in 1780 he was 
sent as a delegate to the Continental Congress. He was a mem¬ 
ber of the National Convention to frame the United States Con¬ 
stitution in 1787; was Secretary of State during Jefferson's admin¬ 
istration, and was inaugurated as President of the United States 
in 1809, serving two terms of four years each. Died June 28, 
1836, aged eighty-five, at Montpelier, Va. 

James Monroe, fifth President of the United States, was 
born in Westmoreland county, Va., April 28,1758. Was two years 
at William and Mary College, after which, in his nineteenth 
year, he became a cadet in the army of Washington, was 
wounded at the battle of Trenton, and became successively cap¬ 
tain and colonel. He was elected to the Virginia Assembly, was 
a member of the Executive Council, 1782, and was chosen dele¬ 
gate to the Continental Congress. He afterward held the posi¬ 
tions of Minister to France, Governor of Virginia, and during 
the second term of Madison^s administration, Secretary of State. 
He was inaugurated as President March 4, 1817, and served two 
terms. Died at New York City, July 4, 1831, aged seventy- 
two. 

John Quincy Adams, sixth President, was born July 11, 
1767, in Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard College, after¬ 
ward studying and practicing law. He was appointed Minister 
to the Netherlands in 1794, and Minister to Portugal in 1797. 


84 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

He was chosen State Senator in 1802, and United States 
Senator in 1804. During his tenure of the latter office 
he became Professor of Rhetoric in Harvard College. In 
1809 he became Minister to Russia and Minister to England 
in 1815. He was Secretary of State during the whole of Mon¬ 
roe’s presidency. He was inaugurated as President of the 
United States March 4, 1825. Died of apoplexy in the House 
of Representatives at Washington, whilst addressing the Speaker, 
February, 21, 1848, aged eighty-one years. 

Andrew Jackson, seventh President of the United States, was 
born in South Carolina in 1765. At the age of twenty he prac¬ 
ticed law at Nashville, Tenn., and on the admission of Tennessee 
to the Union was elected Representative to Congress and after¬ 
ward to the United States Senate. In 1798 he became Judge of 
the Supreme Court of Tennessee, but speedily resigned that office 
for that of Major-General of Militia. He had a successful mili¬ 
tary career, distinguishing himself in several campaigns against 
the Indians; defeating the British in Florida, and successfully and 
brilliantly defending New Orleans. He became Governor of 
Florida, and in 1823 United States Senator for that state. He 
served eight years as President, his inauguration taking place 
March 4, 1829. Died June 8, 1845, aged seventy-eight years. 

Martin Van Buren, eighth President of the United States, 
was born in the state of New York in 1782. He commenced 
the study of law at the age of fourteen, and was admitted to the 
bar in his twenty-first year. He was State Senator in 1812, 
Attorney-General in 1818, United States Senator in 1821* 
reelected, 1827, Governor of New York 1828, Secretary of State 
1829. He was elected Vice-President of the United States in 
1832, and held that office until his election to the presidency. 
Inaugurated March 4, 1837. He held the office one term. Died 
July 24, 1862, aged eighty years. 

William Henry Harrison, ninth President, was born in Vir¬ 
ginia, February 9, 1773. He graduated at Hampden Sidney 
College, and began the study of medicine, but relinquished it to 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


85 


become ensign, at the age of nineteen, in the Army of the Western 
Frontier. He resigned his commission as captain in 1797 to 
become Secretary of the Northwestern Territory. In 1800 he 
was appointed Governor of Indian Territory and Upper Louisi¬ 
ana. His complete success in an action with the Indians at 
Tippecanoe river caused him to be appointed Commander-in- 
Chief of the Northwestern army. He was Eepresentative to 
Congress for Ohio in 1816, elected to the Senate of Ohio 1819, 
United States Senator in 1824, and minister to Colombia in 1828. 
He was a candidate for President in 1836, but was defeated. He 
was, however, elected in 1840, and inaugurated March 4,1841. 
He died exactly ohe month later, aged sixty-eight years. 

John Tyler, the tenth President of the United States, suc¬ 
ceeded to the position on the demise of Harrison, under whom 
he had been elected Vice-President, and held the presidency dur¬ 
ing the remainder of the term. He was born in Virginia 1790, 
and died January 18, 1862, aged seventy-two. 

James K. Polk, the eleventh President, was born in North 
Carolina, November 2, 1795. Studied and practiced law in Col¬ 
umbia, Tenn., 1819; served in Legislature 1823; elected Member 
of Congress 1825, continuing in office for fourteen years. In 
1845 he became Democratic candidate for the presidency and 
was elected. He was inaugurated March 4, 1846. He retired 
from office 1849, and died the same year, June 15, aged fifty- 
four years. 

Zachary Taylor, twelfth President, was born November 24, 
1784. He entered the United States army as lieutenant in 1808, 
and rose through the ranks of captain, major and colonel, to an 
independent command as general. His brilliant career in the 
war with Mexico led to his nomination to the presidency. He 
was inaugurated March 4, 1849. He died July 9, 1850, having 
been President one year, four months and five days, aged sixty- 
six. 

Millard Fillmore, thirteenth President of the United States, 


86 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


was born in Cayuga county, New York, January 7, 1800. He 
practiced law in the village of Auburn 1823; was elected mem¬ 
ber of the New York Legislature 1829; Representative in Con¬ 
gress 1835; reelected 1837. In 1847 he was elected Comptroller 
of the State of New York. He was elected Vice-President in 
1848, and on the death of President Tyler succeeded him in 
office, serving to the end of his term. Died March 8, 1874, aged 
seventy-four years. 

Franklin Pierce, fourteenth President of the United States, 
was born in Hillsborough, N. C., November 23, 1804. He gradu¬ 
ated at Bowdoin College and studied and practiced law. He was 
speedily sent to the State Legislature, and in 1833 was elected a 
member of Congress, in 1837 United States Senator, and in the 
Mexican war he was commissioned a Brigadier General. Not¬ 
withstanding numerous obstacles, he succeeded in joining General 
Scott at Puebla, with his troops, and was engaged actively in 
the closing scenes of the war. He was elected to the presidency 
by a large majority, and was inaugurated March 4, 1853. Died 
October 8, .1869, aged sixty-five years. 

James Buchanan, fifteenth President of the United States, was 
born in Pennsylvania 1791. He followed the profession of the law 
with great success. He was a member of his native State Legisla¬ 
ture for six years, and was elected five times successively to Con¬ 
gress. In 1831 he was appointed Minister to Russia ; in 1833 he 
was elected United States Senator. In 1845 he became Secretary 
of State. He was inaugurated as President March 4, 1857. Died 
June 1, 1868, aged seventy-seven years. 

Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth President, was born in Kentucky 
1809. He was very humbly born, his father being without the 
very elements of education, but he forced himself on, and by his 
own efforts acquired a good education. Such qualities necessarily 
brought him to the front, and he became a prominent lawyer 
and statesman. He took part in the Black Hawk war, in which 
he distinguished himself, was elected to the Illinois Legislature 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


87 


in 1834 and reelected 1836 ; he was a Representative to Congress 
1847o His contest with Stephen A. Douglas, for the United 
States Senatorship, led to his nomination as President. He was 
inaugurated March 4, 1861. He was reelected in 1864, but was 
assassinated by Booth at Ford’s Theater Washington, D. C., 
April 14, 1865, aged fifty-six years. 

Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth President of the United 
States, attained that position from the vice-presidency, which he 
occupied when Abraham Lincoln was assassinated. He was born 
in Raleigh, N. C., in 1808. At the age of ten he was apprenticed 
to a tailor, and served seven years, afterward working at the 
trade several years. He educated himself with his wife’s assist¬ 
ance, and was elected Alderman of Greenville, Tenn., in 1828, 
Mayor in 1830 ; he was sent to the State Legislature in 1835, 
and in 1839, to Congress in 1843 ; he became Governor of Ten¬ 
nessee in 1853, and again in 1855, and United States Senator in 
1857. He took the presidential chair April 15, 1865. In 1866 
he was impeached by the House and tried by the Senate, but 
acquitted. After the close of his term he retired from public 
life until 1875, when he was elected United States Senator. He 
died July 31 of that year, aged sixty-seven years. 

Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth President of the United States, 
was born in Clermont county, Ohio, April 27, 1822. He entered 
the Military Academy at West Point in 1839, and graduated in 
1843. In the war with Mexico he held the rank of Brevet 
Second Lieutenant, and was in every battle but that of Buena 
Vista. He was promoted to the rank of Captain. In 1854 ho 
left the army and engaged unsuccessfully in farming and after¬ 
ward in the leather trade. He was more than forty years of 
age when his life seemed that of a disappointed man. The war 
of the Rebellion, however, brought his opportunity. He began 
by showing that he could handle men, and secure their confidence, 
and he rose step by step until he was at the head of the entire 
Federal force. In 1867 he became for a short time Secretary of 


88 


PRESIDENTS OE THE UNITED STATES. 


War, and he was elected President in 1868 and reelected in 
1872. He died July 23, 1885, aged sixty-three years. 

Rutherford B. Hayes, the nineteenth President of the United 
States, was born at Delaware, Ohio, October 4,1822. He graduated 
at Kenyon College in 1842, and afterward studied law. He was 
admitted to the Bar in 1845 ; was commissioned Major in the 
army 1861. At the close of the Civil War, in which he was 
several times wounded, he became Brevet Major General. He 
was a member of Congress for Ohio in 1864 and was reelected 
in 1866 ; Governor o£ Ohio in 1867, and reelected 1869, and 
1875. He was inaugurated as President March 4, 1877, and 
served the full term of four years. 

James A. Garfield, twentieth President, was born in Cuyahoga 
county, Ohio, November 19,1831. Hisparents were poor and he 
had a hard struggle in his youth. His career was the honorable 
one “from the log cabin to the White House.” He graduated 
at Williams College, in 1856; in 1859 he was chosen a member 
of the Ohio Senate. In 1861 he became Colonel of the 42d 
Ohio Infantry, and his distinguished services advanced him to 
the rank of Major General. He retired from the army to reenter 
Congress, where he occupied a prominent place. There he con¬ 
tinued until 1880, when he was sent to the United States Senate. 
On March 4, 1881, he was installed in the President's chair, but 
only occupied it for a few months. He was shot by the assassin 
Guiteau July 2, 1881, and died September 19, in the same year, 
aged fifty years. 

Chester A. Arthur, twenty-first President of the United 
States, was born in Franklin county, Vt., October, 5, 1830. He 
graduated at Union College, Schenectady, N. Y., in 1849, and 
soon afterward became Principa 1 of Pownal Academy, Vermont. 
He adopted the legal profession, and was sent as delegate to the 
Convention at Saratoga which founded the Republican party of 
New York. In 1860 he was appointed by Gov. Morgan of New 
York, Engineer-in-Chief on his staff, and afterward Quarter- 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


89 


master-General of Military forces of New York. He was 
appointed Collector of Customs of the port of New York in 
1871, and reappointed in 1875. He was elected Vice-President 
under President Garfield, and on the death of the latter, occupied 
his position by law. He held the office till the end of the term, 
March 4, 1885. After a long illness he died. 

Grover Cleveland, twenty-second President of the United 
States, was born in Caldwell, N. J., March 18, 1837. Admitted 
to the bar 1859, he became Assistant District Attorney in the 
State of New York, and was reappointed in 1863. He was 
elected Sheriff of Erie county, 1863 ; Mayor of the City of Buf¬ 
falo 1881; Governor of New York 1882. He was inaugurated 
President March 4, 1885. 








CHAPTER IX. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



|tARTINGt from the sun, the earth is the third of 
the globes that is reached, which circle around it. 
The planet Mercury is the nearest to the sun, and is 
much smaller than the earth ; next is Venus, a globe 
nearly as large as the earth ; and then Earth, whilst 
fourth comes the planet Mars. 

Our globe is about 7,900 miles in diameter. It is 
not a perfect sphere but is flattened at the poles, 
so that it resembles an orange in shape. The earth 
turns round once in 24 hours as if on a rod or axis, 
and this turning motion is called its daily or diur¬ 
nal rotation. It is this motion which causes night 
to follow day and day to follow night. Every instant one half of 
the earth's surface is in sunlight and the other half in darkness ; 
vhe former half receiving supplies of warmth, the other half part¬ 
ing with the heat it had received during the day. Whilst, 
however, the dark half of the earth is absolutely without any 
direct supply of heat or light from the sun, all over its extent , 
the illuminated half is not in the same general condition all 
over its extent, but is receiving the largest supply of heat at or 
near its center, and scarcely any heat at or near its circum¬ 
ference. 

The tropical zone includes all those parts of the earth at 
which the sun is ever overhead, and, except on the tropics them¬ 
selves, the sun is overhead twice a year at every spot in the 
tropical zone. At the equator it is overhead at noon, in spring 
and autumn. North of the equator it is overhead first between 

90 







SCENE IN THE POLAR REGIONS 

























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































• . 










































































































































































































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.< L 














‘ 









V ^ 












PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


91 


spring and summer, and second, between summer and autumn, 
the times of the greatest midday heat being nearer to midsum¬ 
mer according as the place is nearer to the northern tropic. 
South of the equator the sun is overhead, at noon, between the 
southern spring and summer (which are our autumn and winter), 
and again overhead between the southern summer and autumn 
(our winter and spring), the times of greatest midday heat being 
nearer to the southern midsummer according as the place is 
nearer to the southern tropic. 

The polar regions are called the Frigid zones , or the Arctic 
regions. The Arctic regions include all parts of the earth at which 
the sun ever continues for twenty-four hours above the horizon, 
or twenty-four hours below it. The spaces between the Arctic 
regions and the tropical zones are called the Temperate zones. 
In these zones the sun is never overhead, and is never either 
above or below the horizon for twenty-four successive hours. 

The earth then is a globe always, only heated and illuminated 
over one-half; more heated and illuminated over the central 
parts of that half than elsewhere ; so turning as at different seasons 
to cause different parts of her surface to occupy this region of 
greatest central light and heat. 

The surface of the earth may be considered an enormous 
ocean, in which are three large islands and a number of smaller 
ones. The largest of these islands includes the continents of 
Europe, Asia and Africa. Of these Europe and Asia may be 
regarded as a single land-region, whilst Africa, which is only 
connected with Asia by the isthmus of Suez (now cut by the 
Suez canal), may fairly be looked upon as a separate continent. 
America, the second of the great continent-islands in point of 
size, is divided into two portions, which are in reality much more 
distinctly separated than Africa is from Asia ; yet they are 
regarded as a single continent, being simply called North and 
South America. The extent of Australia, the third great island, 
is little less than that of Europe. Other important islands are 
Madagascar, Greenland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembkfc 


92 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Great Britain, Ireland, Japan, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Papua. 
Cuba, St. Domingo, Jamaica; the New Zealand islands, New 
Caledonia, and the islands of the Pacific ocean; the Mediterra¬ 
nean islands ; Newfoundland. 

The division of the water surface is to some extent arbitrary, 
since there is no real separation between the oceans. All the 
water within the Arctic circle forms the Arctic ocean ; that 
within the Antarctic forms the Antarctic ocean. The water 
lying between America on the west and Europe and Africa on 
the east forms the Atlantic ; the Indian ocean extends over the 
whole space between the Antarctic, the Atlantic, Africa, Arabia, 
nearer India, Borneo, Celebes, Papua and Australia to the 
circle marking 145 degrees of east longitude. The enormous 
expanse of water surface between America, Asia and Australia, 
but limited on the east, west and south by the Atlantic, Indian 
and Antarctic oceans, is called the Pacific. The Mediterranean, 
Black, Irish, North and Baltic seas, and the gulf of Mexico, are 
regarded by some geographers as belonging to the Atlantic. 
Inland seas (so called because they are salt) are the Caspian, sea 
of Aral, and Dead Sea, and a few others. True lakes, or fresh¬ 
water surfaces, are regarded as belonging to the land, since even 
the largest of them are in fact merely appendages of the river 
systems. 

The sea-surface of the earth is nearly three times as great 
as the land-surface. If the latter be represented by 100, the 
former may be so by rather more than 280. The whole surface 
of the globe being 196,500,000 square miles, the land-surface 
is thus about 51,500,000, and the sea 145,000,000. The southern 
hemisphere contains a larger extent of sea-surface than the 
northern in the proportion of about 7 to 5; the land-surface in 
the northern hemisphere amounts to about 38,000,000 of 
square miles, and in the southern to about 13j- millions. 

SALTHESS OF THE SEA. 

The sea is not equally salt in all places. Inland seas into 


SALTNESS OE THE SEA. 


93 


which large rivers fall are usually less salt than the open sea; 
but where such seas are exposed to great heat, and no large 
rivers fall into them, the water is often saltier than ordinary 
sea-water. Near the Polar seas the water is less salt than else¬ 
where owing to the meeting of the ice there. If the salt of a 
given quantity of water, from the British Channel, be called 
100, then there is in the same quantity: 

Baltic Sea, 19 parts of salt. 

Black Sea, 61 parts of salt. 

Irish Channel, 96 parts of salt. 

Mediterranean Sea, 111 parts of salt. 

Ocean of the Equator, 112 parts of salt. 

North Atlantic, 116 parts of salt. 

Sea of Marmora, 118 parts of salt. 

South Atlantic, 121 parts of salt. 

Dead Sea, 1806 parts of salt. 

COLOR OF THE SEA. 

The open sea is usually a deep blue, almost black-blue. 
Near the shores it becomes a bluish-green, and closer in it is often 
a greenish-yellow. The colors usually seen in the Black, 
Yellow, Red, and Vermilion (off California) seas are indicated 
by their names. In the Gulf of Guinea the sea is white. 
Around the Maidive islands it is black. These peculiarities of 
color are partly due to the presence of minute living creatures 
in the water, and partly to the nature of the sea’s bottom. 

HEAT AND COLD. 

Water is of all substances that which changes its temperature 
least rapidly. This is a most valuable property in regard to the 
ocean. During the day it does not become heated so quickly as 
the land, and during the night it does not part with its heat so 
readily. Beside the sea it is for the same reason (and apart 
from other considerations) cooler in' summer and not so cold in 
winter. 


94 


WAVES, TIDES AND CURRENTS. 


DEPTH OF THE OCEAN. 

Owing to currents this is difficult to ascertain. The North 
Atlantic attains its greatest depth between Newfoundland and 
the Bermudas, the soundings giving 5,200 fathoms, or more 
than 30,600 feet. If these soundings can be trusted the 
highest of the Himalayas might be wholly sunk beneath these 
waters. Very little is known of the depth of the Indian and 
Pacific oceans. 

WAVES, TIDES AND CURRENTS. 

Waves are caused by the wind, which, pressing on the sur¬ 
face, causes parts to be depressed below the mean level and 
and other parts to be raised above it. The height of the waves 
depends partly on the force of the wind and partly on the 
nature of the sea. When an ocean shallows along the course of 
great waves, they do not grow higher, but they change much in 
character. They first become steeper, and, farther on, the 
motion of oscillation disappears almost entirely, and the waves 
are changed into great masses of water traveling bodily on¬ 
ward. As these rollers approach the shore they undergo a 
further change; for their front becomes steeper and steeper, 
until their summits actually overhang the advancing base. 
Then the mass bears over, thundering against the rocks of the 
shore. At Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, waves in 
stormy weather reach a height of from 30 to 40 feet. 

The phenomenon of the tides is caused by the attraction of 
the sun and moon. 

There are various theories as regards ocean-currents . Some 
hold that they are produced by the trade-winds, and that the 
rest of the current system follows as a consequence; others, that 
the different weight of cold and hot sea-water causes a disturb¬ 
ance of equilibrium which results in these currents; others that 
cold water flowing deep down under the surface from the Arctic 
and Antarctic oceans sets the whole system of circulation in 
motion; whilst some suppose that the chief cause of the oceanic 


MOUNTAINS AND HIGHLANDS. 


95 


circulation is the evaporation of water in the equatorial and 
tropical regions. 

MOUNTAINS AND HIGHLANDS. 

If the earth had no inequalities the water on it would cover 
its entire extent. How it came to be sunk at one part and 
raised at another we cannot tell, but doubtless the action of 
heat in its center has been a potent cause. It is known that at 
the present time the crust of the earth is being slowly pressed 
upward at some places, and depressed at others. These pro¬ 
cesses sometimes take place quietly, hut at others they develop 
into earthquakes and the eruptions of volcanoes. Parts of the 
earth's surface which are now under water were once dry land, 
and we have ample evidence that regions now above the sea- 
level, forming continents and islands, were once covered by the 
ocean. Geologists have found that in« some regions such 
changes have taken place several successive times. 

All the chief mountains are found either directly connected 
with other mountains into a more or less regular row of heights, 
or, if alone, they are so related to island groups, as to show that 
these are simply the highest peaks of submerged mountain sys¬ 
tems. The most remarkable chain of mountains in the world 
is that which begins at Behring Straits and extends in an almost 
unbroken chain to Asia Minor. Tracing this chain westward 
to Turkestan it passes to a remarkably high table-land, 15,000 
feet above the level of the sea. We can recognize the extension of 
the Asiatic chains in those which appear in Europe—it is pro¬ 
longed through Turkey, Italy, Switzerland, Bavaria and Spain. 
The Spanish peninsula is almost wholly table-land, the northern 
part being almost 3,000 feet and the southern about 2.000 feet 
above the sea-level. The whole interior of Africa, between the 
Mountains of the Moon and the mountain ranges running 
nearly north and south, on the eastern and western sides of the 
continent, is high table-land. Abyssinia is raised about 6,000 
feet above the sea-level. 

In the new world the mountain system is simpler than in 


96 


El VERS AND LAKES. 


the old. There is a long range of mountains extending from 
the extreme north of North America to the extreme south of 
South America. These are, in the north, the Oregon or Rocky 
mountains, and in the south the Andes, which possess the 
highest mountains on this continent. In Mexico there is an 
extensive table-land of great elevation ; the plain of Toluca, on 
which the city of Mexico stands, is . fully 9,000 feet above the 
level of the sea. In South America are plateaus of even greater 
height; Chimborazo, and the other giants of the Andes, stand 
around, as sentinels, the table-land of Potosi, which is 12,700 
feet above the level of the sea. 

RIVERS AND LAKES. 

The same forces which have determined and are still in¬ 
fluencing the levels of the earth's surface have brought about the 
existence of rivers and streams. In Europe many of the 
largest rivers flow into the Mediterranean Sea or the Black Sea, 
whilst the largest of all — the Volga — flows into the Caspian. 
Several large rivers discharge themselves into the North Sea and 
the Baltic. Those that seek the Atlantic are comparatively 
few. The Nile is the only important African river which flows 
into the Mediterranean. The whole of the northwestern re¬ 
gion of Africa is rainless and riverless, occupied by the vast 
desert of Sahara. Several considerable rivers, however, flow 
into the Atlantic, and only one of any importance into the 
Indian Ocean. 

The Asiatic river system shows the influence of the 
mountain-chains and the high table-lands. All the largest 
rivers flow from the great central table-land. The Oxus and 
Sihon flow into the Sea of Aral; three Siberian rivers fall into 
the Arctic Ocean; three great rivers into seas bordering the 
Pacific on the west; the Ganges flows into the Bay of Bengal, 
and the Indus into the Arabian Sea. The Euphrates and 
Tigris flow into the Persian Gulf from the Armenian table¬ 
land. 

Australia is practically a riverless continent, and its future 


Comparative Lengths of* the 

PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 










































































s 

: 





















































* 





















* 






































♦ > 























s 























RIVERS AND LAKES. 


97 


development will depend greatly on the carrying out of the 
schemes of artificial irrigation which are now seriously exercising 
the various colonies. 

The river-system of America is relatively far grander than 
that of the Old World. The American continents taken to¬ 
gether do not equal Asia in extent, yet each is irrigated by a 
river surpassing, as well in length as in volume, the largest 
rivers of other lands. In North America the Mississippi pur¬ 
sues a course of 3,000 miles in length, receiving on its way the 
waters of many tributary streams, each exceeding in importance 
the largest European rivers; of these the Missouri is, properly 
speaking, to be regarded as the main stream, since its course is 
far larger than that of the Mississippi above the junction. In 
South America the Amazon or Muranin traverses a course 
scarcely less in length, and pours even a greater volume into the 
Atlantic. “ Before arriving at the ocean," says Alison, the 
historian, “ its broad sheet, from the middle of which the eye 
cannot reach the banks, seems rather to be a fresh-water sea, 
flowing sluggishly toward the ocean basin, than a river of the con¬ 
tinent. From its source to the sea is 2,700 miles. Its breadth, 
after it emerges from the plain, is generally from two to three 
miles, and its depth is seldom less than 160 yards. A vehement 
struggle ensues at its mouth between the river flowing down and 
the tide running up; twice a day they dispute the preeminence, 
and animals as well as men withdraw from the terrible conflict. 
In the shock of the enormous masses of water, a ridge of surf 
and foam is raised to the height of 180 feet; the islands in the 
neighborhood are shaken by the strife; the fishers, the boatmen, 
the alligators, withdraw trembling from the shock; the shores 
are covered to a great distance with volumes of foam; huge 
rocks, whirled about like barks, are borne aloft on the surface; 
and the awful roar, reechoed from island to island, gives the 
first warning to the far distant mariner that he is approaching 
the shores of America." The Orinoco, the Parana, and the 
San Francisco, are the chief other rivers of South America, but 
7 


98 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


some of the streams that flow into the Amazon are larger tham 
the largest rivers of Europe. 

In North America, besides the Mississippi, the Rio Grande 
flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The rivers flowing into the 
Pacific are not important; but the rivers which flow into the 
Arctic Ocean, Hudson's Bay and the North Atlantic are not only 
large, but are remarkable for the great lakes which exist along 
their course. Lake Superior is more than half as large again as 
the Sea of Aral. 

CLIMATOLOGY. 

The climatology of the globe relates to the degree of heat and 
cold to which its respective countries are subject, the dryness 
and moisture of the air, and its salubrity and insalubrity as 
influenced by these and other causes. The determining particu¬ 
lars as to the climate of various places in this country has made 
considerable progress within the last few years, and quite recently 
climatic maps have been published by Dr. Denison, of Denver, 
Colo., regarding the whole of the United States, affording 
very valuable information. Apart from details, however, the 
following general causes have been sufficiently ascertained as 
affecting climate : 1. The action of the sun upon the soil and 

atmosphere. 2. The internal heat of the globe. 3. The height 
of the place above the sea. 4. The general exposure of the 
region. 5. The direction of its mountains relatively to the 
cardinal points. 6. The neighborhood of the sea, and its 
relative position. The geological character of the soil. 8. 
The degree of cultivation which it has received, and the density 
of the population collected upon it; and 9. The prevalent winds. 
These causes acting together or separately, determine the 
character of a climate as moist and warm, moist and cold, dry 
and cold, dry and warm, etc., and this climatic character is the 
main influence which determines the nature and amount of 
vegetable and animal development. 

The torrid zone has two seasons — the wet and the dry. The 
latter is oonsidered as the summer, arid the former as the winter 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


99 


of tne regions within this zone; but they are in direct opposition 
to the astronomical seasons as the rains follow the sun. In some 
districts there are two rainy and two dry seasons in every year. 
In the temperate zone the year is divided into four seasons whose 
changes are so agreeable and salubrious. This regular succession 
of the annual changes can hardly, however, be considered as 
extending farther than from 35° to 60° of latitude. In the frigid 
zone two seasons only are known — a long and severe winter, and 
a short but fervid summer. This abrupt and harsh transition is 
occasioned by the great length of the day in summer, when the 
sun never sets, and by the total absence of that luminary during 
winter. The decrease of heat as we recede from the equator is 
greater in the southern than in the northern hemisphere. 
According to Humboldt, continents and large islands as a rule 
are warmer on their western than on their eastern sides. The 
extremes of temperature are more felt in large inland tracts than 
on islands, and situations near the coast. The sea absorbs and' 
radiates heat more slowly than the land ; and thus after the land 
has lost its warmth, the ocean is radiating its tempering influence. 
For these reasons, climatologists have'found it necessary to 
construct isothermal lines round the globe, that is, lines along 
which the annual mean temperature is the same. Again, places 
which have the same mean annual temperature vary considerably 
in their mean summer and winter temperature; hence isochi- 
mennl lines, or lines of equal winter temperature, and isotheral 
lines, or those which show equal summer overpoints, upon 
different isothermal curves. Another set of lines or curves called 
isogeothermal , connect points where the temperature of the soil is 
equal at or beneath the surface. 

Since the temperature of the atmosphere diminishes with the 
altitude, a limit must be reached where water will remain in 
perpetual congelation, independent of all seasonal influences. 
This limit is called the snow-line , and is found at various heights, 
according to latitude, proximity to the sea, and other causes, 
which affect the general climate of the region. In the Hima- 


100 


CLIMATOLOGY. 


laya and Andes it is found at an elevation of 17,000 feet; in the 
Swiss Alps at 8,500 feet; and in the Scandinavian range at 
3,500 feet. Generally in those countries which are near the 
equator, the snow-line is found about 16,000 feet, or three 
miles above the sea-level; about the 45th parallel in either hemis¬ 
phere it occurs at an elevation of 9,000 feet; under 60° of latitude 
at 5,000 feet or about that; under 70° of latitude at 1,000 feet y 
and under 80° the snow-line comes down to the mean sea-level, 
for countries which are 10° distant from the poles are covered 
with snow all the year round. From snow and glazier clad 
mountains cold breezes rush down to cool the adjacent plains; 
and similar winds blow from the arctic to the tropical regions. 
Indeed, wherever the air of one region becomes heated or rarefied, 
the colder and heavier air of the surrounding regions .will rush 
in to restore the balance. Such is the cause of all aerial currents, 
and, in particular, of those blowing within the 25th degree of 
latitude on either side of the equator, known as the trade-winds, 
cyclones , monsoons, the simoon, harmattan, sirocco, and other local 
winds, sea and land breezes, and in fact every species of aerial 
current may be traced to similar causes. 

The amount of rain which falls on the earth's surface is ex¬ 
ceedingly varied, ranging from 20 or 30. inches to several feet 
per annum, and that within comparatively short distances. 
The greatest amount .of rain recorded is among the Khasia 
mountains to the northeast of Calcutta; at the Churra station 
500 inches have been measured in seven months, and the single 
month of August has given 22 feet. But the moisture of a 
climate does not wholly depend upon the amount of the rain-fall 
registered by a rain-gauge; for some climates are humid and 
yet not rainy; others dry, yet subject to periodical torrents. 
These torrents give rise to inundations; hence the peculiar 
seasonal floodings of such rivers as the Nile and the Ganges. 
The mean annual fall of rain over the entire surface of the 
earth is estimated at five feet. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 


101 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

The life of the globe — that is, its vegetable and animal pro¬ 
ductions— constitutes its most important and exalted feature 
as a creation. All the varied materials of which it is composed, 
all the complicated actions, reactions, and mutations to which 
they are subject, are humble phenomena compared with the 
production of the lowliest organism. This life is everywhere; 
the waters teem with it, the dry land from pole to pole is clad 
with it; nay, there is life within life, and perhaps there exists 
not a plant or animal but becomes in turn an abode for others 
more diminutive. 

Vegetables are regulated in their terrestrial distribution by con¬ 
ditions of soil, heat, moisture, light, height of situation, and vari¬ 
ous other causes; in the waters by depth, heat, light, nature of 
bottom, and the presence of mineral and saline ingredients. Were 
it not for these causes, there is no reason why the tribes and genera 
of one region should not be identical with those of another, — 
why the orange trees of Florida should not bear fruit in 
Alaska, or the palm trees of India flourish alongside of the 
oaks of England. As it is, the tropics have genera unknown 
to the temperate zone, and every advance pole-ward brings us 
in contact with new and peculiar species. Temperature in# this 
case seems to be the grand regulating condition; and as this is 
affected by elevation, as well as by increase of latitude, we find 
the mountain ranges near the equator presenting all the features 
of a tropical> temperate, and even arctic vegetation. Thus 
palms and plantains may luxuriate at their bases; then appear 
oranges and limes; next succeed fields of maize and wheat; 
and, still higher, commences the series of plants peculiar to 
temperate regions. In temperate latitudes, though the variety 
of vegetation is less, similar phenomena present themselves. 
Besides these great climatic effects, there are others depending 
on soil, moisture, light, etc., which though limited are not less 
imperative. Thus the southern slope of a hill is generally 
clothed with species distinct from those on the north; a lime- 


102 DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

stone district presents a carpet of vegetation widely different 
from that of a clayey moorland; some tribes flourish in the 
moist valley, which would die on the open plain; some tribes 
thrive in the marsh, others on the dry upland; some luxuriate 
under the influence of the sea-spray, which would be instant 
destruction to others. But, whilst most species are subject to 
these laws, there exists in the constitution of many a certain 
degree of elasticity, which admits of their adaptation to a wider 
range — a beneficent arrangement, which permits man to ex¬ 
tend through cultivation those grains and fruits upon which 
his subsistence so essentially depends. 

The animals which people the globe are subjected to some¬ 
what similar laws of distribution. Some are strictly tropical, 
others confined to the temperate zone; while not a few are 
destined to exist wholly within the polar circles.. Besides this 
general distribution, we find a more particular restriction to 
certain continents and tracts where peculiarities of soil, climate 
and food seem to be the governing conditions. Thus the 
elephant roams only in India, Burmah and Africa; the ostrich 
in Africa; the rhea in the pampas of South America; the 
kangaroo in Australia; the reindeer within the arctic circle; 
the polar bear amid the snows of Greenland and Labrador. 
Similar laws are impressed on the life of the ocean. The 
“ right 99 whale, as it is termed, of the northern hemisphere, is 
a different animal from that of the southern; for “the tropical 
regions of the ocean are to him as a sea of fire, through which 
he cannot pass, and into which he never enters; ” while the 
sperm whale delights in warm water. The herring finds its 
chosen habitat in the Northern Sea; the oyster clings to a pecu¬ 
liar bottom, at a certain depth; the cod inhabits the same banks 
and shoals for ages; and a few fathoms of more or less depth 
would be more fatal to many species of shell-fish than the dredge 
of the fisherman. As on plants so on animals, altitude exerts a 
very decided influence; and there is no exaggeration in saying 
that a lofty mountain range presents a more impassable barrier to 


DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 


103 


vital distribution than the widest expanse of ocean. Though pre¬ 
senting a close analogy in the manner of their distribution, 
plants and animals differ in this respect, that many tribes of the 
latter — birds, fishes, and mammalia — make periodical migra- 
grations of vast extent; food and proper breeding-places being 
the objects of their search. These migrations must not be con¬ 
founded with that adaptability of constitution displayed by the 
horse, the dog, the ox, the sheep, the pig. The .one is but a 
change of place in search of food, under a congenial tempera¬ 
ture; the other amounts to a constitutional change irrespective 
of climatic influence. 

Man, of all animals, has the widest geographical distribu¬ 
tion. This he enjoys not only from the greater adaptability of 
his constitution, but from that superior intelligence which en¬ 
ables him to counteract the effects of climate by clothing, houses, 
fire, and the storing of provisions. Though generally regarded 
as a single species of a single genus, naturalists have divided 
mankind into several varieties, according to their more promi¬ 
nent physical features; and ethnologists extending the subject 
according to minor features, language and so forth, have sub¬ 
divided these varieties into branches, types, tribes and families. 
That the external conditions, to which man, like all other 
animals, is subjected, may in course of ages have stamped the 
inhabitants of certain regions with certain physical character¬ 
istics, is nothing more than what might be expected, and division 
and subdivision may therefore be carried too far, resulting only 
in confusion and absurdity. 

THE EVERLASTING HILLS. 

Nature is jealous of any one of her forces acting for an hour 
alone. The balance must be kept true by the antagonism of her 
forces,—the one which tears down a made land in order to make 
a new one, being, as soon as its work is complete, met by another, 
which begins the labor anew. The volcano, the slow, “ secular 
rise,” and the coral polyp, have elevated an island, or a section 
of country, above the surface of the waves, But it has no 


104 


THE EVERLASTING HILLS. 


sooner appeared in the supra-aqueous world than the sea begins 
to attack it, and toss its materials hither and thither, forming 
out of a solid peninsula strings of islands, or an archipelago of 
mud flats, such as are witnessed in the Friesian Islands and 
Holland. We also see this in the way mountains are formed. 
It is quite incorrect to apply the term “old” to “the hills.’. 
In a geological sense, many of them are infinitely newer than 
the plains, and the physical geographer is well aware that they 
are anything but “everlasting.” They are, in fact, the offspring of 
rivers which cut up plains into elevated plateaux, of rains which 
crumble the plateaux into peaks, and of volcanoes and volcanic 
action which toss up into gigantic mounds the materials which 
the rivers have for ages been bringing down to the sea, and 
which the earthquake and the slow, “ secular rise ” have elevated 
from the bottom of the ocean or the lake. In a comparatively 
rainless region, such as that through which the Colorado flows, 
this eroding action of a river has all its own way. Without its 
work being neutralized by the play of the rain on the surface 
washing down the banks, the current wears down its bed, eating 
deeper and deeper into the soil, earth and rocks alike, until, as 
in the now well-known eafions of the Colorado and its tributaries, 
the river flows at the bottom of a cleft more than a mile below 
the level of the surrounding country. 



CHAPTER X. 


VOLCANOES. 


N different parts of the earth there are above 200 vol¬ 
canoes which have been in active operation in modern 
times. The most famous are Vesuvius, in Italy; 
Etna, in Sicily ; and Hecla in Iceland. By an eruption 
of Mount Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Hercu¬ 
laneum were overwhelmed 24th August a. d. 79, and 
more than 200,000 persons perished, including Pliny 
the naturalist. In June, 1794, a terrific outburst took 
place; the lava flowed over 5,000 acres of rich vine¬ 
yards and cultivated lands ; the top of the mountain 
fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in cir¬ 
cumference. 

After the eruption of Coseguina, in Central America, in 
1835, ashes were found thickly scattered at a distance of 700 
miles, and an area of 25 miles radius was covered to a depth of 
ten feet. Saugay, a volcano in Central America, in 1842-3, 
ejected ashes which covered the surrounding country to a dis¬ 
tance of twelve miles, in beds from 300 to 400 feet thick. One 
of the Quito volcanoes in 1797 filled valleys many miles in length, 
a thousand feet wide, to a depth of 600 feet, with mud com¬ 
posed of ashes and snow. An eruption took place in the island 
of Tumbawa in 1815, which continued four months without 
interruption, throwing scoriae and ashes in such abundance that 
they broke down the roofs of houses 40 miles distant, and were 
carried more than 300 miles, in sufficient quantity to darken the 
air at a distance; while the floating cinders on the ocean formed 
a mass two feet thick, through which ships could hardly force 
their way. 



105 










106- 


VOLCANOES. 


Of the effect of submarine volcanoes some interesting obser¬ 
vations have been made in modern times. In June, 1811, an 
island was thrown up by volcanic agency near St. Michael in the 
Azores. Columns of cinders rose 700 or 800 feet above the sur¬ 
face of the sea, with a noise resembling that of distant artillery. 
In the course of a few days the island was a mile in circumfer¬ 
ence, and about 300 feet high, having a crater in the center full 
of hot water. Some time afterward it disappeared. Many 
islands that have long been inhabited by man bear all the appear¬ 
ance of having risen in like manner from the bosom of the deep. 
The islands of St. Helena and Ascension, the Azores, the West 
India Islands, Iceland, and many of the islands of the Pacific, 
are evidently the result of volcanic action. “ Owyhee , 99 says He 
La Beche, “is a magnificent example of such an island; the 
whole mass, estimated as exposing a surface of 4,000 square 
miles, is composed of lava, or other volcanic matter, which rises 
in the peaks of Mouna Boa and Mouna Kaa to the height of 
between 15,000 and 16,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

Volcano is derived from Vulcan , the god of fire, who was 
supposed by the ancients to reside in a cavern under Mount 
Etna, and to forge thunderbolts for Jupiter. 

THE GREAT SALT LAKE. 

The most striking feature of the valley is the Great Salt Lake 
— the Dead Sea of America. Curiously enough, the specific 
gravity of the waters of this lake is almost precisely the same, 
the solid matter held in suspension in the American lake being 
no less than 22.422 in 100 parts of water. In other words, if 
four barrels of its water are allowed to evaporate, nearly one 
barrel of salt is left. The lake has no outlet — at least none 
has been discovered—yet the volumes of fresh water poured into 
it by “the Jordan " and other streams fail to diminish its salt¬ 
ness. Hence it is supposed that it covers a secret bed of saline 
deposit. 

CAVES. 

The Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, which is the largest in 



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CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS. 


107 


the world, was discovered in 1809 ; Weyer’s cave, in Virginia, 
1804; Wyandotte cave, Indiana, 1816. Caves are frequently 
mentioned in the Bible as dwellings, refuges, and burial-places. 

CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS. 



Canals 

Miles. 


Per 100 
Square 
Miles 

Rivers. 

Total. 

United Kingdom. 

3,124 

1,786 

4,910 

4 

France. 

3,150 

5,240 

8,390 

4 

Germany. 

1,320 

15,760 

17,080 

8 

ltussia... 

873 

20,942 

21,815 

1 

Austria. 

413 

2,925 

3,338 

1 

Italy. 

320 

1,590 

1,910 

2 

Spain. 

270 

815 

1,085 

X 

Portugal. 


470 

470 

i X 

Belgium. 

535 

710 

1,245 

11 

Holland.. 

930 

340 

1,270 

6 

Denmark. 

200 

• • • 

200 

1)4 

Sweden and Norway. . 

100 

460 

560 

X 

Europe. 

11,235 

51,038 

62,273 

2 

United States. 

3,330 

16,850 

20,180 

1 

Canada. 

535 

2,820 

3,355 

X 

Brazil. . 


22,210 

22,210 

1 

India. 

2,240 

2,600 

4,840 

X 

China. . 

5,270 

3,800 

9,070 

X 

Total. 

26,610 

99,318 

121,928 



The length of the Suez canal is 92 miles; depth, 26 feet, and 
it was thirteen years in construction. Tolls average $4,300 per 
vessel. Steamers pass through in forty hours. For sailing ves¬ 
sels, tugs are provided at a charge of $1,000 extra. The entire 
cost of constructing the canal was $85,180,000. 

The British government owns one-fifth of the shares of the 
canal, having bought 176,602 from the Khedive in 1876, for 
£3,976,600, being 12| per cent premium. The coupons having 
been cut off, the Khedive pays the interest till 1892. The canal 
shortens the voyage between England and the East by one-third; 
that is, it enables two vessels to do the same work that would 
require three by the Cape of Good Hope. 








































108 


NAMES OF CITIES. 


Descriptive names of cities. 

Baltimore: “ Monumental Cityso called on account of 
the large number of monuments it contains. 

Boston, Mass.: “Hub of the Universe/’ a name given by 
0. Wendell Holmes. “Puritan City/’ “Athens of America/’ 
“ Modern Athens.” The last name is more properly by prescrip¬ 
tive right the designation of Edinburgh, Scotland. 

Brooklyn, N. Y.: “City of Churches.” From its large 
number of ecclesiastical edifices. 

Buffalo, N. Y.: “ Queen City of the Lakes.” 

Chicago: “Garden City.” Chicago is preeminent for the 
number and beauty of its private gardens. 

Cincinnati: “ Queen City.” A name given when it was 

par excellence the city of the West. 

Cleveland, Ohio: “ Forest City.” From its many avenues 
of ornamental trees. 

Detroit: “ City of the Straits.” Detroit is situated on the 
west bank of the river or strait connecting Lake St. Clair with 
Lake Erie. 

Indianapolis: “Railroad City.” The terminus of vari¬ 
ous railroads. 

Kansas City: Sometimes called “Garden of the West.” 
The name is shared, however, with other places in the West. 

Keokuk, Iowa: “Gate City.” Situated at the foot of the 
lower rapids of the Mississippi. 

Louisville, Ky.: “Falls City.” Situated beside the falls 
which impede the navigation of the Ohio river. 

Lowell, Mass.: “City of Spindles.” The largest cotton 
manufacturing town in the United States. 

Milwaukee: “Cream City.” From the color of its brick. 

Nashville, Tenn.: “City of Rocks.” 

New Haven, Conn.: “City of Elms.” The streets of Hew 
Haven are, many of them, thickly shaded by these splendid 
trees. 


NAMES OF CITIES, 


109 


New Orleans: “ Crescent City.” The older portion of the 
city is built around a head, forming a crescent, of the Missis¬ 
sippi river. 

New York: “Gotham.” Originated by Washington Irv¬ 
ing. “Empire City.” From being the metropolis of the Em¬ 
pire State, and the leading city in the western continent. 

Philadelphia: “City of Brotherly Love.” From the signi¬ 
fication of the name, “Quaker City.” Its founder, William 
Penn, was a Quaker, as were many of his associates. 

Pittslurg, Pa.: “Iron City.” “Smoky City.” On ac¬ 
count of its immense iron works and manufactories. The latter 
name suggests “Auld Reekie,” which is a fond, but not now 
very ropriate name, of Edinburgh, Scotland. 

Portland, Me.: “ Forest City.” From its many elms and 
other shady trees. The name is shared with Cleveland, Ohio. 

Rochester, E. Y.: “Flour City.” Famous for its flour¬ 
mills. 

Springfield, Ill. “ Flower City.” The capital of the state. 
Remarkable for its beautiful surroundings. 

St. Louis: “ Mound City.” On account of the large num¬ 
ber of artificial mounds which occupied the site of the city. 

Washington: “City of Magnificent Distances,” The 
capital of the United States is magnificently laid out. It is 
intended to cover a space of four and a half miles in length by 
two and a half miles in breadth, or eleven square miles. These 
distances are traversed by two sets of streets, at right angles to 
one another, in width from 70 to 100 feet. These are again 
! intersected in an oblique direction by fifteen avenues, ranging 
in width from 130 to 160 feet. 











CHAPTER XI. 


MINING AND MINERALS. 



COAL. 


HERE are five kinds of fossil fuel: anthracite, coal, 
lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satis¬ 
factory definition of coal has yet been given. The 
composition of tvood is 49.1 carbon, 6.3 hydrogen, 
44.6 oxygen; of coal 82.6 carbon, 5.6 hydrogen, 
11.8 oxygen. 

As to the origin of coal, no matter what the 
variety, there can be no doubt that it is essentially 
vegetable. Not only are fossil trunks, branches, 
leaves and fruits found in the mass, but when sub¬ 
mitted to the microscope, it often shows the ducts 
and fibers of a true vegetable structure. We know, moreover, 
that vegetable matter, when subjected to moisture and pres¬ 
sure, and excluded from the action of the air, will in a short 
period pass into a bituminous or carbonaceous mass, which time, 
and greater pressure of heat, would by and by convert into 
true mineral coal. How the masses of vegetable matter were 
accumulated is still a subject of speculation with geologists, — 
some contending that the trees, grasses, ferns, etc., which 
compose it must have grown and accumulated just as peat 
mosses do at the present day, and that the land was then sub¬ 
merged, and the mass covered over by layers of sand and mud, 
which, hardening, formed strata of coal and shale; others re¬ 
ject this theory as untenable, and consider the whole strata, — 
sandstone, shale, etc., of the coal measures to have been de- 

110 












COAL. 


Ill 


posited in estuaries liable to periodic inundations, like those of 
the Niger and Ganges, but only on a more gigantic scale. Ac¬ 
cording to this notion, which is more in accordance with the 
phenomena presented, coal is partly composed of vegetables 
which grew in situ , in the form of jungle, and partly of masses 
drifted down from the interior by the waters of the river. 

There are coal-fields all over the world, although many of 
them remain as yet untouched. Coal exists in the various parts of 
Europe, in India, China, Africa, Australasia, and even in some 
of the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. The coal-fields 
of Great Britain have been the most famous up to the present 
time. They are estimated at 5,400 square miles, and the aver¬ 
age production or output for five years, ending 1380, was about 
134,000,000 tons. This country, however, possesses coal-fields 
of far greater extent still. For every square mile of coal-field 
England contains, North America has at least twelve ; and for 
the most part the coal is thicker, more easily worked, and a 
larger portion of the whole can be obtained. The coal-fields of 
Pennsylvania, Virginia and Ohio extend continuously from 
northeast to southwest for a distance of 720 miles ; the greatest 
breadth being 120 miles ; its area thus amounting to 129,600 
square miles. That situated in Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky 
embraces an area of 14,000 square miles, while several, many 
times larger than the largest coal-field in Great Britain, are 
found in Michigan and other parts of the Union. 

It is uncertain when coal first began to be used as fuel, but 
in all probability it was not earlier than the beginning of the 
twelfth century. It is within the current century, however, 
that it has come to be of such enormous importance; since the 
application of the steam engine to the purposes of the mine, the 
factory, the railway, the ocean and river boats ; since the intro¬ 
duction of gas, the extension of foundries, and the general 
advancement of those economical processes which distinguish 
the present from any other period of the world’s history. 

Anthracite coal, which is produced chiefly in Pennsylvania, 


112 


JET, NAPHTHA, PRETROLEUM, ETC. 


was first used as fuel by two Connecticut blacksmiths named 
Gore, in 1768-9 ; first used as domestic fuel by Judge Jesse Fell, 
of Wilkesbarre, Pa., in 1808. Except the diamond, anthracite 
coal is the purest form of carbon known; 

JET, 

of which neck-laces, ear-rings and many other ornaments are 
made, is but a variety of coal, as common in its nature and 
origin as that we burn in our stoves. It is principally found in 
Germany, where it occurs associated with amber, which is 
regarded as a fossil gum ; while jet seems to be the trunk and 
branches of trees more completely bituminized, and freer from 
earthy impurities than cannel or other coals. It is easily turned 
on the lathe, or cut with the chisel, and is susceptible of a fine 
polish. Amber is solid, brittle, commonly transparent, and, 
when rubbed, becomes electrical. It is found in various 
countries, more particularly on the Adriatic and Sicilian shores. 
The largest known specimen was found near the surface of the 
ground in Lethuania, about 12 miles from the Baltic. It weighs 
18 pounds, and is in the royal cabinet at Berlin. Other curious 
specimens have been discovered, enclosing insects and even 
drops of liquid. 

NAPHTHA—PETROLEUM—ASPHALT. 

These may, in a great measure, be regarded as members of 
the same class, as they are composed of the same elementary 
substances, carbon and hydrogen. 

CALCAREOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Under this head are included such economic minerals as 
contain a notable proportion of calx , or lime, in their composi¬ 
tion. Common limestone, magnesian, and lithographic lime¬ 
stones, marble, chalk, marl, gypsum, and alabaster, are familiar 
examples. Some of these have evidently been deposited from 
calcareous waters ; others are as evidently the production of 
animalcules. Whatever may have been their several origins. 


LIMESTONES AND MARBLE. 


113 


they have all undergone certain structural changes since their 
formation,—thus rendering them less or more compact and 
crystalline, producing a dull massive rock, or a brilliant marble, 
an opaque gypsum, or a translucent alabaster. 

LIMESTONES 

fit for building and agricultural purposes, are found in every 
formation, from the oldest to those of most recent origin. 
Taken from the quarry, or mine, limestone is broken into frag¬ 
ments of moderate size and conveyed to a kiln, where it is 
roasted, thereby expelling its water and carbonic acid. In this 
state it is known as shell , unslaked or caustic lime , and requires 
to be moistened with water in order to convert it into powdery 
quicklime or slaked lime. Limestone is one of the most abund- 
dant of rocks, there being no district of any extent in which it 
does not appear as a member of one or other of the geological 
formations. 

MARBLE 

is but a technical term for any species of limestone sufficiently 
pure and compact to be susceptible of a fine polished surface. 
No matter what the color, whether white or black, whether 
studded with the strange forms of fossils, or streaked with the 
most fantastic veinings, marble is but a carbonate of lime, con¬ 
taining only a few subordinate impurities, which do no more 
than affect its color markings. 

The celebrated marbles of Greece and Borne, such as the 
Parian, the Pentelic, the Carrara, etc., were of one uniform 
color, and only occasionally marked with grayish or greenish 
veins. Besides these, which were chiefly employed in sculpture, 
and in the decoration of their public edifices, the ancients in¬ 
dulged in a number of fancy marbles, for minor ornamental 
purposes,— such as black, red, green, yellow, spotted, and 
veined. Inexhaustible supplies of first-rate statuary and arch¬ 
itectural marbles may still be obtained from the Archipelago, 
from Carrara, Genoa, Corsica, Sicily, and other parts of Italy. 

8 




114 


MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. 


Many marbles are found in France, England„and Scotland. 
The Kilkenny marble of Ireland is black, and incloses shells of 
a whitish color, which, when cut across and polished, present 
various circular markings, which add to the beauty of the slab. 
The United States possess some excellent architectural marbles, 
principally of primary formation. One range, which passes un¬ 
broken through several of the states, is one of the most extensive 
and valuable primary limestones in the world. It is of a pure 
white color, and of a highly crystalline texture, affording blocks 
of more than 50 feet long and 8 feet thick. It is employed in 
several of the states’ buildings, as, for example the City Hall, 
New York; and Girard College, Philadelphia. 

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE 

is so called from its containing a notable percentage of magnesia, 
a well-known medicinal earth, commonly obtained by burning 
the carbonate of magnesia. The compact granular variety of 
the stone is generally termed dolomite , after Dolomieu, a French 
geologist. The British Houses of Parliament are built of this 
stone. Natural carbonate of magnesia exists as a component 
part of many mineral substances, making them feel soft and 
soapy to the touch. Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) is ob¬ 
tained by a simple process from bittern, by treating magnesian 
limestone with dilute sulphuric acid, or from certain mineral 
springs. This salt is one of the most common and useful in 
medicine, and is, moreover, the chief source of the other forms 
in which magnesia is administered. 

MEERSCHAUM, 

which means foam of the sea, is an earthy carbonate of magnesia, 
extremely light, and of a yellowish-brown color. It is found in 
various parts of Southern Europe, particularly Greece and 
Turkey, where, besides being fashioned into pipe-bowls, it serves 
also the purpose of a fulling-earth. Germany, however, is the 
great seat of the meerschaum-pipe manufacture. The substance is 
first soaked in tallow, then in wax, fashioned into the desired 
form, and finally polished with shave-grass. 


CHALK, GYPSUM AND CORAL. 


115 


CHALK, 

another well-known mineral, is a carbonate of lime of a white 
or whitish-gray color. It is the last or youngest of the second¬ 
ary rocks. 

GYPSUM, 

also known as sulphate of lime, and plaster of Paris, occurs in 
various states of crystallization and purity; thus the ordinary 
gypsum of commerce is soft and imperfectly crystalline; selenite 
is a transparent, highly crystalline mass; satin gypsum is fibrous, 
and crystalline; and alabaster is pure white and translucent. 
Gypsum is extensively quarried at Montmartre, near Paris, 
whence it has derived its ordinary name of plaster of Paris. All 
sculptures of alabaster should invariably be kept under a glass 
shade, as a few months’ exposure destroys at once their purity 
of color and marble translucency. 

CORAL, 

or coral-stone, is another calcareous material. Being entirely the 
secretion of certain marine animalcules, it is pretty nearly a 
pure carbonate of lime, and occurs in the warmer latitudes of 
the^Pacific in vast barriers and reefs, often from 50 to 100 feet 
in thickness, and from a few miles to hundreds of leagues in 
linear extent. Selecting for their residence some submarine 
ledge of rock, the animalcules begin to work, increase and 
spread; when they reach the surface they stop, and proceed 
sideways, until they complete a mass that may well compete 
with any of the ancient rock-formations. Coral rock is oc¬ 
casionally employed in the settlements of the South Sea islands 
as a building-stone, volcanic forces having thrown beds of it 
several hundred feet above the sea-level. Coral is also used for 
ornamental purposes, black and red varieties being highly 
prized. Sicilian coral has been known to bring as much as from 
$40 to $50 an ounce. Regular coral-fisheries are established in 
the Straits of Messina; on the shores of Majorca and Ivica; the 
coast of Provence; and in other parts of the Mediterranean. 


116 


ARGILLACEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


The Red Sea, the Persian Gulf the coast of Sumatra, etc., pro¬ 
duce large quantities. 

ARGILLACEOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Under this name are included all those substances in which 
clay (i argilla ) is a prevailing ingredient. Every one is familiar 
with the common superficial clay, which takes various colors, 
yellow, red, bluish. Worked up it is manufactured into bricks 
and tiles, and the coarser sorts of earthenware. For bricks, 
slabs, crucibles, etc., which have to resist the action of fire, some 
of the coal-measure clays are generally had recourse to; these, 
from their purity, and a certain percentage of silica, being sus¬ 
ceptible of a more thorough burning. 

Pipe-clay, potter’s-clay and porcelain-clay are but technical 
names for pure varieties of well-prepared specimens of the 
same substance. One of the finest varieties of aluminous earth 
is the china-clay, or the kaolin of the Chinese. This is a de¬ 
composed feldspar — one of the constituent minerals of granite— 
which has been accumulated in vast quantities in certain locali¬ 
ties, having no doubt been washed down by rains from the 
weathered and exposed surface of granitic rocks. 

fuller’s-earth 

is a soft, dull, unctuous kind of clay, usually of a greenish-brown 
color. It is used in the fulling of cloth from its property — 
common to all soft aluminous minerals — of absorbing oil or 
grease. Soap has now very much taken its place. Every clay 
that is of an unctuous or saponaceous quality will answer in some 
degree the purposes of fulling, but not so well as proper fullerV 
earth, which is distinguished from common clay by its falling to 
pieces in water, with a slight crackling noise, instead of making 
a paste with it as clay does. 

OCHRE 

is a painter’s term for a native earthy mixture of alumina, silica, 
and oxide of iron. 


ARGILLACEOUS SUBSTANCES. 


117 


CLAY-SLATE, 

of which roofing and writing slate are the most familiar ex¬ 
amples, belongs to one of the lowest or oldest formations, and is 
essentially composed of alumina and silex. The finer grained 
varieties are polished for school-slates, and slate-pencils, and 
those of attractive colors are manufactured into flower-pots, 
vases, fancy tables, and other ornamental objects. Clay-slate is 
invariably quarried. 

SILICIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Silex , or silica, is one of the most important and most gener¬ 
ally diffused of the mineral ingredients that enter into the rocky 
crust of the globe. Rock-crystal, quartz, chalcedony, and 
flint may be regarded as nearly pure silica; and all the varieties 
of sandstone, quartz-rock and granite are in great measure 
composed of it, — many sandstones, for example, being pure 
granular quartz, or silica, with a slight cement of clay. 

QUARTZ AND QUARTZ-ROCK, 

though of importance as forming the basis of other rocks, are of 
themselves of no great commercial value. Pounded quartz 
enters largely into the composition of Chinese porcelain; the 
purer varieties of rock-crystal are occasionally cut as ornamental 
stones; and the transparent varieties have been adopted by 
opticians as spectacle lenses. The so-called “ Brazilian pebble,” 
used for this purpose, is of pure silica, and is sometimes found 
in crystals, as large as a cocoa-nut. Quartz, in its crystalline 
forms, constitutes several of the “ precious stones,” or gems, and 
will be further treated under that head. 

FLINT. 

The common nodular flints found in the chalk-formation are 
nearly pure silica, exhibiting but a trace of alumina, oxide of 
iron, and lime. The formation of flint within a mass so different 
in composition as chalk is still, in some respects, an unsolved 
problem in geology. It occurs in lumps or knots, nodular 


118 


SILICIOUS SUBSTANCES. 


masses, of very irregular forms, some not exceeding an inch, 
others more than a yard, in circumference. Although thickly 
distributed in horizontal layers, they are never in contact with 
each other, each knot or nodule being completely enveloped in 
the chalk. When taken from the quarry they are brittle, and 
full of moisture, but soon dry, and assume their well-known 
hard and refractory qualities. Flints, almost without exception, 
inclose remains of sponges, alcyonia, echinida, and other marine 
organisms, the structures of which are often preserved in the 
most delicate and beautiful manner. 

Flint has many uses : calcined and ground to a powder it is 
employed in the manufacture of the finer sorts of pottery, and 
porcelain; it also enters into the composition of flint-glass; 
is used in the preparation of certain kinds of soap; and before 
the invention of the percussion-cap, gun-flints were in universal 
use. 

SANDSTQNE, 

or freestone, as it is sometimes called, occurs in innumerable 
varieties, differing in color, in composition, fineness of grain, 
and compactness. Thus we have some red from the presence of 
peroxide of iron ; some silvery and glistening, from the pres¬ 
ence of ihinute scales of mica ; others white, yellow,’and mottled; 
and some almost jet black from the presence of bituminous or 
carbonaceous matter. As to mineral composition, there is no 
other class of rocks so varied ; for, though quartz grains give 
them their family character, clay lime, mica carbon, iron and 
the like, mingle with them so capriciously, that it is impossible 
to find any two strata of sandstone exactly of the same composi¬ 
tion. Again, their texture is equally if not more varied; in 
some the grains being as large as peas, in others quite unpaya¬ 
ble ; some being so soft and friable as to be rubbed down with 
the hand, and others so hard and compact that nothing but the 
chisel of the stone-cutter can touch them. 

Besides building and paving, several sorts of sandstone are 
employed for grindstones, millstones, whetstones and the like. 










SILICIOUS SUBSTANCES. 


119 


The basin of Lake Superior, the largest collection of fresh 
water known, is one great synclinal trough formed by a depres¬ 
sion in the sandstone which appears to form its bed. It has been 
satisfactorily determined to be of Lower Silurian age, and prob¬ 
ably the equivalent of Potsdam sandstone, the lowest fossilifer- 
ous rock recognized in this country. 

SAND. 

On narrowly inspecting the immense masses of sand scattered 
over the face of the country, it will be found that the great bulk 
of it is composed of silicious particles, evidently derived from 
decomposed quartz-rock, granite, sandstone, and the like. As 
might be expected, most sands are mingled with clay, lime, and 
other earthy impurities; and it is according to their silicious 
character, and degree of freedom from earthy ingredients, that 
they become of value in arts. Thus sharp, well-sifted sand is 
an indispensable ingredient in well prepared mortar, without 
which the builder, the plasterer and fresco-painter could not 
proceed a single step. Good silicious sand is necessary for the 
making of all sorts of glass, now one of the most important 
manufactures in the civilized world. 

GRANITE ROCKS. 

This term may be considered as embracing not only the true 
igneous granite, but the gneissose and mica slate rocks, which, 
though stratified, partake of the same mineral character, and are 
usually associated with it. In all of them, silica is a predominant 
ingredient, but other minerals, such as hornblende, hypersthene, 
etc., occasionally mingle with it, thus producing a number of 
varieties. Granite compounds form the fundamental rocks 
of many mountain chains. The Andes, South America; 
the Abyssinian and other African ranges ; the Ural in Russia ; 
the Pyrenees in Spain ; the Dofrefeld in Norway; the Wicklow 
mountains in Ireland, and the Grampians in Scotland, are all 
more or less composed of rocks partaking of a granite character. 

The economical uses to which granite rocks are applied are by 


120 


SILICIOUS SUBSTANCES. 


no means unimportant. Compact granite, from its extreme 
hardness, is largely employed in the construction of docks, piers, 
light-house foundations, bridges, and other structures where 
durability is the principal consideration. The Pyramids, though 
internally constructed of limestone, are externally coated with 
granite. Pompey's Pillar, and other ancient Egyptian struct¬ 
ures, are composed of it; so, too, is the pedestal of the colossal 
statue of Peter the Great in the Russian capital. Many monu¬ 
mental monoliths in this country are of granite. 

MICA, TALC, ASBESTOS, 

and other minerals, are the products of the granite and primary 
rocks. The silvery-looking scaly substance, which occurs in 
ordinary granite, is mica , so called from its glistening appear¬ 
ance. It is sometimes found in crystals more than a foot 
square; and when of this size is split into thin plates, and, from 
its transparency, used in certain cases as a substitute for glass. 
It stands a higher degree of heat without splintering, than glass, 
and is well adapted for ship lights, not being liable to fracture 
during the firing of canon. Talc slate is employed in the por¬ 
celain and crayon manufactures, and is used as a marking 
material by carpenters, tailors and others. Asbestos (uncon¬ 
sumable) or amianthus (undefiled), is a soft mineral, occurring 
in separate filaments of a silky luster, and consisting essentially 
of silica, magnesia, and lime. When steeped in oil it may be 
woven into cloth, which is incombustible, and may therefore be 
purified by fire. Cloth of this kind was used by the ancients to 
wrap the bodies of the dead about to be burned, to prevent their 
ashes being mixed with those of the funeral pile. In this coun¬ 
try asbestos is sometimes used as a lampwick. 

BASALTIC ROCK. 

This includes all the basalts, greenstones, whin-stones, and 
traps which make up the sum of the igneous rocks of the second¬ 
ary formations. They are essentially silicious,— quartz, horn¬ 
blende, hypersthene, augite, and so forth, entering largely into 


VOLCANIC PRODUCTS. 


121 


their composition. Some of the basalts and greenstones dress 
well under the hammer, and though of a dingy character, 
make an excellent building-stone, durable as granite itself. 

VOLCANIC PRODUCTS. 

These are chiefly lava, obsidian, pumice, scoriae, and a light 
impalpable dust, in all of which silica and alumina are the main 
ingredients. Obsidian , so named, according to Pliny, from 
Obsidius, who first brought it from Ethiopia, is a true volcanic 
glass, of various colors, but Usually black, and nearly opaque. 

In Mexico and Peru it is occasionally fashioned into adzes, 
hatchets, and other cutting instruments, or into ring stones. It 
closely resembles the slag of our glass-furnaces, and consists 
chemically of silica and alumina, with a little potash and oxide 
of iron. Pumice , a well-known volcanic product, is extremely 
light and porous and of a fibrous texture; it is harsh to the 
touch, is usually of a grayish color, and has a shining pearly 
luster. Like obsidian it is principally composed of silica and 
alumina, with traces of potash, soda and oxide of iron. It is 
used for polishing metals, glass, marble, wood, ivory, and also in 
the smoothing of parchment and vellum. 

SALINE SUBSTANCES. 

These comprehend such products as rock-salt, alum, salt¬ 
peter, borax and the like, which are found either as native salts, 
or are procured by artificial processes from certain mineral sub¬ 
stances with which they are combined in nature. Some of these 
salts are of vast economical importance, and appear to be as in¬ 
dispensable to the progress of civilized life as either coal or 
iron. The common culinary salt of every-day life is a chloride of 
sodium, every 100 parts of which are composed of 60 chlorine, 
and 40 soda. It constitutes about the thirtieth part of the 
weight of sea-water; it is discharged by salt or brine springs 
(which arise from different geological formations, and are 
situated in different countries) to the extent of from 20 to 30 
per cent; and it is found ip various degrees of purity, in beds 



122 


SALINE SUBSTANCES. 


and irregular masses from 20 or 30 to more than 120 feet in 
thickness. Native chloride of sodium is never found in a state 
of absolute purity, but is always less or more combined with 
certain salts of lime, magnesia, etc.; to free it from these impur¬ 
ities and render it fit for culinary purposes, is the occupation of 
the salt boiler and refiner. 


ALUM 


is a well-known earthy salt found native only in small quantities, 
but largely manufactured. It is used in dyeing, and calico- 
printing ; in lake colors, in leather-dressing, in the preparation 
of paper-pastes, in clarifying liquors, and by candle-makers to 
harden and whiten tallow. 


SALTPETEE, 


or nitrate of potash, is used in the manufacture of gunpowder, 
signal-lights, nitric and sulphuric acids, and in dyeing, curing 
of meat, and in medicine. 


BOEAX 


is a compound salt, and is largely employed by brasiers, silver¬ 
smiths, and other workers in metals as a flux ; by potters in the 
formation of a glaze for earthenware and porcelain; in the fab¬ 
rication of artificial gems; in medicines; and in other minor 
arts. 








CHAPTER XII. 


METALS AND METALLURGY. 



HE peculiar luster of metals, arising out of their 
opacity and reflective power with regard to light, 
their conduction of heat, and electricity, their dens¬ 
ity, fusibility, ductility, malleability, and the like, 
are features, which, though differing in each, yet 
readily distinguish them as a class from all other 
substances. It is this density, and hardness in some, 
this ductility and malleability in others, and the 
facility with which many of them can be amalgamated, 
that have rendered them such valuable aids to human 
progress, and made them available for almost every 
purpose of utility and ornament. Without them, 
indeed, any high degree of civilization would be impossible; 
they are essential to every process in agriculture, architecture, 
machinery, navigation, — to every art, in a word, which marks 
the advancement of mankind from the lowest stages of barbarism. 
As elementary substances, their scientific distinctions belong to 
the science of chemistry; the present chapter takes to do with 
their history, the localities where found, the modes of obtaining 
and preparing them, the purposes to which they are applied, 
their relative values, and other particulars of economic im¬ 
portance. 

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 


The metals, as found in nature, are seldom in a state of 
purity. It is true that "the miner occasionally detects a frag¬ 
ment of native metal — pure and ductile as from the crucible of 
the chemist — but such fragments are rare, and bear no 

123 
















124 


GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 


appreciable proportion to the quantity which occurs in the 
crude state of ores. These ores are sulphurets, carbonates, 
oxides, etc., mingled with earthy impurities, generally situated 
in veins, sometimes disseminated through rocky masses, rarely 
in beds or strata, and distributed through the formation, but 
more especially through those of the primary and transition 
series. Thus iron, the most familiar and useful of all metals, oc¬ 
curs in more than twenty different mineral states, being combined 
with carbon, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.; is found in 
veins traversing different formations; is disseminated through 
various rocks, so as to give to them a ferruginous aspect; and, 
as clay ironstone, is interstratified with the clays and shales of 
the coal-measures. To arrange and classify the ores is the study 
of the mineralogist; to determine their value, or the amount of 
metal they contain, is the art of the chemist; to raise them 
from their various positions is the labor of the miner; to 
separate the metal from the earthy impurities is the work of the 
metallurgist; and to fashion it into implements, utensils, and 
machines, is the calling of the founder, machinist, blacksmith, 
cutler, and the others. As with the ores of iron, so with those 
of the other metals, only that few of them can be said to occur 
stratified like the clay or carbonaceous ironstone. It must not 
be supposed, however, that the respective metals always lie in 
separate veins—that copper, for example, is always the only 
metal found in a copper vein ; or lead in a so-called vein of lead. 
The fact is that, although some one metal generally pre¬ 
dominates, three, four, or even more metals may be strangely 
combined and intermixed in the same veinstone. 

beds. — VEINS. 

The natural position in which the metalliferous ores generally 
occur, is veins , teds or strata , and fragmentary deposits. In the 
last of these the ore is associated with sand, gravel, and other 
superficial debris, which have evidently been transported by 
alluvial agency from mountain metalliferous districts. The 
strata are for the most part composed of earthy matter, less or 


BEDS — VEINS. 


125 


more impregnated with one or other of the metals, but it is only 
those in which the metallic ingredient is peculiarly abundant 
that demand the attention of the miner. Veins, however, are 
the principal forms in which metallic ores are distributed 
throughout the crust of the globe. 

A vein may be said to resemble a deep cleft or rent, in a 
clayey field, which has been subjected for some time to the 
dessicating influence of the sun's rays. This cleft, whatever 
may be its depth, must of course have a direction under the 
ground, either slanting or perpendicular; and if we suppose it 
filled with metallic ore, we form the idea of a vein, or, as it is 
termed, a lode; if we suppose the cleft filled with a stony 
substance, we can imagine what is called a non-metalliferous 
vein or dike, of which there are many, sometimes pursuing their 
own exclusive courses, and at other times intersecting the 
metalliferous veins. The direction of the lodes is by no means 
accidental, but nearly determinate. They usually strike east 
and west, and dip or underlie either towards the north or 
south; while the non-metalliferous veins, which run north and 
south, dip either towards the east or west. It frequently 
happens that the metalliferous ores, as was said, intersect each 
other; and, as a leading fact, the intersection of two lodes at a 
small angle, is productive of good ore. 

The compositions of the lodes or veins are as variable as the 
nature of the rocks, through which they pass. By far the 
greater number consist of matter similar to that of the con¬ 
tiguous or intersected rock; but many also contain large inter¬ 
mixtures of quartz. These ingredients for the most part are 
mingled without regularity or order, and throughout them are 
dispersed the metallic ores. Sometimes these are aggregated 
very thickly, and very generally occur in large irregular lumps 
or patches, called hunches, connected with each other by small 
films or threads of ore. On referring to the known depths to 
which metals extend, it will be found that those which com¬ 
monly lie near the surface, as lead, zinc, gold, and occasionally 


126 


MINING OPERATIONS. 


.tin, do not generally penetrate to any great depth; while those 
that lie deeper, as copper and silver, are worked in the bottoms 
of our deepest mines. This arrangement may be the result of a 
natural law, or it may be apparent only, and consequent on the 
limit of our knowledge and experience. 

MINING OPERATIONS. 

A mine in a complete working condition exhibits a most 
extensive series of operations, in connection with the shaft, the 
lifting and descending by ropes and pulleys, the drainage, the 
excavation, the ventilation, etc. At the bottom of the shaft, 
and in the various stages in which the excavations are going on 
by the miners in their attempt to follow the lodes, the opera¬ 
tions are on a scale which seldom fail to surprise strangers. 
When the levels have been carried to a considerable distance from 
the shaft, the ventilation will be found defective. This deficiency 
is still further augmented by the increasing number of men 
now employed in the works, the presence of a great number of 
candles and lamps, and the smoke resulting from the large 
employment of gunpowder, in the process of blasting. The 
irregular distribution of the metalliferous portions of the lode 
becomes the cause of inequality in the workings, and ?’enders 
the sinking of one or more shafts indispensable. 

When circumstances permit, mines are entered by an adit on 
the hillside, instead of by shafts. Where the edges of the strata 
are exposed to view, a spot is selected from which it may be 
practicable to drive a level upon the vein itself, and in one of 
the beds known to be favorable to its productiveness. The min¬ 
ing of stratified ores, as the clay or carbonaceous ironstone, is 
conducted precisely in the same manner as coal. 

GOLD. 

As the most valuable and longest known of the metals, gold 
deserves to be noticed first. When pure, it is of a deep and 
peculiar yellow color, rather soft, and extremely heavy, having 
a specific gravity of 19.5 — that is, nineteen times heavier, bulk 


GOLD. 


127 


for bulk, than pure water. It exceeds all other metals in duc¬ 
tility and malleability; it may be beaten into leaves of 1,282,- 
000th of an inch in thickness, and a single grain may be drawn 
out into 500 feet of wire. Though soft, its fusing point is as 
high as 2016° of Fahrenheit; it is unchanged by fire with access 
of air—the hottest furnace producing no other effect on it than 
to keep it in fusion. It expands during fusion, and contracts 
on cooling, more than any other metal. It is not acted upon 
by any of the common acids; but chlorine and a mixture of 
hydrochloric and nitric acids {aqua regia), corrode and dissolve 
it, forming a chloride of gold which is soluble in water. The 
metal occurs in greater or less abundance in almost every quarter 
of the globe ; and is obtained either in native state from alluvial 
sands and gravels, or in mineral veins in combination with 
silver, and often mixed with metallic sulphurets and arseniurets. 
In the native state it occurs in small crystals, in threads or 
granular fragments, which, when of a certain magnitude, are 
called nuggets. 

The geological formations in which gold occurs are the crys¬ 
talline primitive rocks, the compact transition strata, the tra- 
chytic, and trap rocks, and alluvial grounds of the current era. 
In the three former sources the ores of the metal are in situ, 
that is, in their original situation ; in the latter it is a traveled, 
or transported, product, being carried thither from the rocks in 
which it was originally formed, by streams and rivers. In the 
former case it is obtained by the difficult and dangerous process 
of mining ; in the latter the soil or gravel is merely turned over 
and the metallic portions — the gold dust of commerce, — sepa¬ 
rated by handpickings, washings, and siftings. California and 
Australia are the great sources of gold in the present day. The 
most extensive gold-mining operations in the world are at Sand¬ 
hurst and Ballarat in the. latter country. The golden wealth of 
California surpasses anything yet known to have been discovered, 
and its influence in the march of the world is to be ranked 
among the great events of modern times. The existence of gold. 





128 


SILVER. 


in California had been long known, but it was not until the 
region passed into the possession oi the United States that this 
knowledge was made practically available. The first effectual 
discovery of gold was in the spring of 1848. In November of 
that year it was estimated that from four to five million dollars 
had been taken out. During the years 1848 and 1849 it is sup¬ 
posed that about $40,000,000 were obtained from the washings, 
there being before the close of the last named year between 
40,000 and 50,000 Americans and 5,000 foreigners engaged in 
digging. The yield for 1850 has been estimated at $50,000,000. 

In the treatment of gold ore various metallurgic processes are 
adopted in various countries, but on the whole that of stamping 
and amalgamating seems to be the readiest and most successful. 
The metallurgic grains found in the sands of rivers do not require 
to be subjected to any metallurgic process in the strict accepta¬ 
tion of the term. 

SILVER. 

This is another of the metals which have been longest known 
and esteemed, having been extensively employed from the earliest 
times in the fabrication of articles both of utility and ornament. 
The word silvery , taken from its own appearance, best describes 
its beautiful color and luster. In malleability and ductility it 
ranks next to gold, being frequently hammered into leaves one 
10,000th part of an inch in thickness. Its specific gravity is 
only 10.5 and its fusing point 1873° of Fahrenheit. Silver is a 
widely disseminated product of nature, occurring in the metallic 
or native state in fine threads or strings^in various rocks, but 
chiefly in veins in primitive and secondary mountains. It is 
found also in combination with other metallic ores, as those of 
lead, and as a native sulphuret. 

Silver, as has been said, is widely distributed, but the great 
sources of supply are in Mexico and Peru. The silver furnished 
by the United States comes almost wholly from the native gold 
of California, for it may be explained there is no native gold, 
however pure, without some admixture of silver. 


COPPER. 


129 


The numerous uses and applications of silver are well known. 
In its pure state it is too soft for coin, plate, and most orna 
mental purposes ; but, alloyed with copper in proper proportions, 
it becomes hard without being materially impaired in color. In 
the arts, silver is extensively used, particularly for silvering or 
plating other metals ; and, for this purpose, silver-leaf and solu¬ 
tions of silver are applied much in the same way as in gilding. 
The oxide of silver is used for coloring porcelain ; and several 
of its salts are now largely employed as the principal agent in 
preparing photographic portraits. When a solution of nitrate 
of silver is mixed with alcohol a violent effervescence ensues, 
and fulminating powder is produced, one of the most dangerous 
compounds known, exploding with violence upon the slightest 
friction, or when struck, rubbed, or heated. 

COPPER. 

This was one of the earliest known of the metals, and not less 
extensively used than known, by the ancients, its tenacity and 
durability rendering it the best substitute for iron, ere man had 
learned to reduce that valuable but more refractory metal. It 
derives its name from the island of Cyprus, where it was exten¬ 
sively mined and smelted by the Greeks, who employed it either 
pure or in an alloyed state (bronze) in the fabrication of their 
domestic utensils and implements of war. It is a metal of a 
beautiful red color and considerable luster, very malleable and 
ductile, but more capable of being hammered into leaves than 
drawn into wire. In tenacity it yields to iron, but surpasses gold, 
silver and platinum — a wire of only one-tenth of an inch being 
strong enough to support a weight of 300 pounds. Its specific 
gravity is 8.96, and its fusing point 1996° Fahrenheit, that is, 
nearly a white heat. It is found occasionally in a native state in 
films, strings, or amorphous masses, but in no considerable quan¬ 
tity. The most remarkable masses hitherto discovered are said 
i to be one in Brazil, which weighed 2,620 pounds; another in the 
bed of a stream to the south of Lake Superior, which measured not 
less than 15 feet in circumference, and a third in Australia. The 




130 


COPPER. 


great source of the commercial supply is, as in the case of other 
metals, from ores, of which the most productive is copper 
pyrites,—that is, copper in certain combinations with sulphur 
and other metallic impurities. A less abundant ore of copper is 
the carbonate of copper, which often occurs associated with the 
copper pyrites. Copper mines are largely worked in England, 
Chili, Cuba, Germany, Sweden, Siberia; less extensively in 
France, Spain, Hungary, and Norway; and with great success 
in this country on the shores of Lake Superior, and in Australia. 

The uses of copper are numerous and highly important, the 
metal ranking next to iron in real commercial value. It is used, 
as is well known, for coin, for sheeting or sheathing the bot¬ 
toms of vessels; for boilers, and a great variety of implements 
and utensils; in the manufacture of blue and green colors; and 
in medicine. Alloyed with zinc it forms brass and pinchbeck ; 
gun-metal, a strong and valuable alloy consists of 90 parts of 
copper and 10 of tin; bell and speculum metal contain a much 
larger proportion of tin, and are consequently brittle and less 
durable. A good bronze for statues is made of 91 parts copper, 
2 tin, 6 zinc, and 1 lead. The bronze of the ancients was an 
alloy of copper and tin. Ormolu is the name given to a particu¬ 
lar alloy of 52 parts zinc and 48 copper. All these alloys are 
of infinite use, entering into the fabrication of almost every 
species of machinery, implement, utensil and ornament — from 
the drawing, pointing and heading of a pin, or the stamping of 
a button, to the casting of a statue, or the founding of a ponder¬ 
ous field-piece. Though thus vieing with iron in its applicability 
to the purposes of civilized life, its salts and solutions are highly 
poisonous; hence the frequent evils arising from the use of 
neglected or ill-cleaned culinary utensils of copper. 

What is called bronzing is a method of coloring wood, iron, 
plaster of Paris, or other material, so as to imitate bronze, 
which has, in reality, little connection with that alloy. 

IRON'. 

This truly precious metal is capable of being cast into 


IRON. 


131 


molds of any form ; of being drawn out into wires of any 
desired length and fineness; of being extended into plates 
or sheets; of being bent in every direction ; of being shar¬ 
pened, hardened, softened at pleasure. Iron accommodates 
itself to all our wants, our desires, and even caprices; 
it is equally serviceable in the arts, the sciences, agricult¬ 
ure and war. The same ore furnishes the sword, the plow¬ 
share, the scythe, the pruning hook, the needle, the graver, the 
spring of a watch or carriage, the chisel, the chain, the anchor, 
the compass, the cannon and the bomb. It is a medicine of 
much value, and the only metal friendly to the human frame. 
The ores of iron are scattered over the face of the globe with a 
beneficent profusion, proportioned to the utility of the. metal; 
they are found under every latitude and zone, and in every geo¬ 
logical formation. 

The preparation of pure iron takes place only in the 
chemical laboratory. It has a bluish-gray color and strong 
metallic luster, which is heightened by polishing. It has a 
specific gravity of 7.84, and is one of the most infusible of 
metals, requiring the highest heat of a smith’s forge to liquefy 
it. When beaten out under the hammer it exhibits a granular 
structure; but when passed repeatedly between rollers, it 
assumes a fibrous texture in the direction of the length. 
This fibrous character is best seen in ordinary malleable or bar 
iron which is almost pure ; and the great difference in the com¬ 
parative strength of bar over cast iron depends on this property. 
The axles of railway cars are most carefully prepared from iron 
which has been rolled and t eroded till the fibrous appearance 
is at a maximum; but, unfortunately, such precautions are 
unavailing, as true fibrous iron, after much wear and tear, espe¬ 
cially when repeatedly strained or jolted, gradually loses its 
thread-like structure and becomes crystalline and brittle. This 
alteration in the arrangement of the physical atoms of the iron 
of axles, doubtless occasions many serious accidents on our 
railroads. 


132 


IRON. 


When raised to a red heat, iron admits of being hammered 
into any form ; and subjected to a white heat two pieces of this 
metal may be readily and completely joined together. This 
operation is called ivelding, and no metal can surpass iron in its 
readiness to be manipulated in this manner. It is powerfully 
attracted by the magnet, and at the same time becomes mag¬ 
netic ; but it loses this property the moment the magnet is with¬ 
drawn. Steel , however, may be rendered permanently magnetic 
by being rubbed over with a magnet. When exposed to air and 
moisture iron absorbs oxygen, and passes into peroxide or red 
oxide of iron, in other words, rust . 

Metallic iron is seldom found native. Meteoric iron, an alloy 
usually of iron and nickel, is more abundant; there is a mass of 
this kind in Yale College cabinet, which weighs 1,635 pounds; 
it was found on the Red river, in Texas. In Connecticut a vein 
of native iron was found two inches thick, capable of being 
wrought into nails by the blacksmith. In Germany and France 
smaller pieces have been found ; and very thin plates or scales 
are disseminated through rocks of the basalt, gneiss, and mica- 
schist character. 

Though rarely found as a metal, iron is abundantly and 
widely distributed in other conditions. All spring and river 
waters contain more or less iron in solution, and in some the 
quantity is so great that an ochery deposit takes place on the 
stones over which the water flows, or in the lakes into which the 
ochery spring enters. This phenomenon may be witnessed in 
Garfield Park, Chicago. All soils contain iron, to which they 
owe their red or rusty aspect, and the majority of stones are 
composed in part of this metal. 

The United States abound in iron, and especially in mag¬ 
netic iron ore or loadstone . In the state of New York the de¬ 
posits of iron ore are on the most extensive scale, and of the most 
varied character; Pennsylvania has immense resources in this 
respect. It has been estimated that about 15,000 square miles 
are occupied by the coal measures ; and, when the abundance 


LEAD. 


133 


of the iron ores, which these and the strata below them contain, 
is taken into consideration, some idea may be formed of the 
capacity of production of the state. Virginia abounds in iron 
ore as well as coal. Tennessee is one of the most important 
iron-producing states of the Union. The iron ores on and near 
Lake Superior form literally mountain masses, sufficient to fur¬ 
nish an unlimited quantity of the purest and finest ore. Nearly 
the whole of Illinois and a considerable part of Indiana is under¬ 
laid by a coal measure, and valuable beds of argillaceous iron 
are said to exist in them. The resources of Missouri for the 
manufacture of iron are very great. 

LEAD. 

This is another of the metals which have been long and ex¬ 
tensively used in the arts of civilized life. It has a grayish-blue 
color, with a bright metallic luster when newly cut, but soon 
tarnishes, and assumes a dull earthy aspect on exposure to the 
air. Its texture is close, like that of gold and silver; its spe¬ 
cific gravity is about 11.45; and it is very malleable and ductile, 
but soft and unelastic. It is one of the least sonorous of the 
metals; melts at the low degree of 600° Fahrenheit; soils the 
fingers when rubbed; and emits a peculiar odor. Though 
readily oxidized by exposure to the air, the oxidization does not 
proceed far; hence the durability for roofing and other external 
purposes. Pure, or distilled water, put into a clean leaden 
vessel, and exposed to the air, soon oxidizes and corrodes it, and 
delicate tests discover oxide of lead in solution in the water. 
River and spring waters do not act so readily on metallic lead, 
but few, if any, of the waters introduced into towns or houses 
for culinary purposes are entirely without a solvent action on 
lead. This action may be only Tvffth to iuth of a grain of lead 
in one gallon (70,000 grains) of water, when it may be reckoned 
harmless; or it may amount to a larger fraction, when it 
becomes dangerous to be taken into the animal system. Leaden 
cisterns may be used with impunity for the preservation of most 
ordinary spring or river waters, and the more so that the crust 


134 


LEAD. 


which forms upon the metal effectually retards all further 
action. As this crust partly, consists of carbonate of lead, 
which is very poisonous, great care should be taken to prevent 
its diffusion through the water upon any occasion, as by scrap¬ 
ing or cleaning the cistern. Natural waters, highly charged 
with carbonic acid, cannot, however, under any circumstances, be 
kept in lead vessels, or passed through leaden pipes with safety. 

Fourteen or fifteen ores of lead are known to mineralogists; 
but that of galena , a sulphuret of the metal, is the only one 
occurring in sufficient quantities to become an object of mining 
and metallurgy. It is found but sparingly in the primitive 
crystalline rocks, more plentifully in the transition schists and 
slates, and most abundantly in the transition and mountain 
limestones. 

The principal lead mining countries are Britain, Spain, 
Prussia, Bohemia, France. The mines of lead are abundantly 
scattered over this country, which has produced a larger amount 
in value of this metal than of any other with the exception of 
iron and gold. The productive mines are chiefly concentrated 
within a district of comparatively small extent known as the 
Upper Mississippi lead region; but there are numerous lead¬ 
bearing veins in the Atlantic States, in various geological 
positions. 

Metallic lead is used for numerous purposes in the arts; 
rolled into sheets , it is used for roofing, lining cisterns, tea- 
boxes, etc.; cast into pipes it is employed for conducting of 
water, gas, and the like ; and alloyed with arsenic, and dropped 
through perforated trays from lofty towers (as at Baltimore), it 
forms shot of various sizes; alloyed with tin, in different pro¬ 
portions, it constitutes solder and pewter; and with antimony 
and tin it forms type and stereotype metal. White lead , a car¬ 
bonate of the metal, is a well-known paint; as is also the beautiful 
yellow chromate; while the acetate of lead, commonly known as 
sugar-of-lead , is employed for various purposes in the arts, and 
in medicine. 


ZINC. 


185 


ZINC. 

Though known as early as the beginning of the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury, the numerous and important applications of zinc, or spelter, 
as it used to be called, are for the most part of recent date. Its 
distinguishing characteristics are bluish-white color and luster; 
specific gravity 6.89; at common temperatures tough and in¬ 
tractable; but heated to between 220° and 320° Fahrenheit, it 
becomes malleable and ductile, so that it may be hammered out, 
rolled in sheets, perforated, and even drawn into wire of such 
tenacity that one-tenth of an inch in diameter is capable of 
sustaining a weight of 26 pounds. Heated beyond that point — 
say between 400° and 500° Fahrenheit — it again becomes so 
brittle that it may be reduced to powder in a mortar. It melts 
at 773°; and heated beyond this it takes fire in the open air, 
and burns with a brilliant bluish flame. The metal is obtained 
from two ores, namely, calamine , a native carbonate; and 
blende , or black jack, a native sulphuret. These ores occur in 
two geological positions, namely, either in the carboniferous or 
in the magnesian limestone, associated with galena, and some¬ 
times with the ores of cadmium. 

Zinc ores are found in Britain, but the quality is inferior to 
that of Germany. In this country the zinc ores of New Jersey 
are important, and the mines of that state till recently were the 
only ones on the American continent. Pennsylvania is also rich 
in this metal, and ores of lead are plentifully distributed through 
the iead mines of the Mississippi valley. 

Zinc being a cheap and light metal, and one which, when 
superficially oxidized, long resists the further action of air and 
water, is now employed as a substitute for lead in lining cisterns 
and baths, covering roofs, forming water-spouts, and the like. 
It is also used in the manufacture of kitchen and dairy utensils; 
it is wrought into buttons and other notions; and zinc plates are 
used in the transfer of printing under the title of zincography . 
Its sulphate and oxide are employed in medicine; and with copper 
it forms, as already described, the well-known alloy, brass. 


136 


ALUMINUM — TIN. 


Though the action of water upon zinc is scarcely perceptible, 
after it once has been coated with the oxide, yet the addition of 
a little acid — as sulphuric — dissolves and removes this coating, 
and further oxidation proceeds with rapidity. It is this action 
which renders zinc so powerful a generator of electricity in the 
voltaic tile or battery. 

ALUMINUM. 

Aluminum is a white metal somewhat resembling tin in ex¬ 
ternal appearance, but with a much less specific gravity. It does 
not tarnish when exposed to the air; even when raised to a high 
temperature it does not oxidize; so that it may be regarded as 
unalterable. It possesses remarkable sonorous properties, and 
in this respect is not outrivaled by the most sonorous alloys, 
such as bell-metal. No other single or pure metal possesses the 
sonorous character, in an unmixed or unalloyed condition. 
Aluminum appears likely soon to rank as one of the most useful 
and serviceable of the metals. 


TIN. 

This was known to the ancient nations of the Levant, who 
obtained it chiefly from Spain and Britain. It is a white, brilliant 
metal; has a slight taste and smell when rubbed; is malleable 
to a considerable degree, but is inferior in ductility and tenacity. 
Its hardness is intermediate between that of gold and lead; its 
specific gravity is about 7.3; it melts at 442° Fahrenheit, and at 
a white heat takes fire, and burns with a brilliant flame. It 
oxidizes but slowly on exposure to air and moisture; hence its 
value in coating or tinning more oxidizable metals, as iron. Tin 
is rather a rare metal, and is principally found in primitive rocks, 
where it occurs chiefly in veins, but partly also disseminated, 
and in beds. There are only two ores of the metal known,— 
the double sulphuret, which is rare, and the native peroxide, 
from which the commercial supplies are obtained. 

This latter ore is found abundantly in Cornwall and the 
western district of Devonshire, England; in Germany, Bohemia, 




TIN. 


137 


and Hungary; in Chili and Mexico, and in Malacca and Banoa 
in the East Indies. 

A single crystal of oxide of tin, weighing 50 grains, was found 
by President Hitchcock, state geologist, many years since at 
Goshen, Mass. It was contained in granite. This was the first dis¬ 
covery of this metal within the territory of the United States. Since 
then it has been found in various places in small quantity. The 
only locality in this country where it has been discovered in any 
appreciable degree is at Jackson, N. H., in 1840. Mining, how¬ 
ever, does not seem to have been had recourse to. 

Besides other uses alluded to, tin is used in the process of 
enameling; in silvering, or rather tinning, looking-glasses; in 
coating pins; by dyers and calico-printers as a mordant when 
dissolved in hydrochloric acid; largely in the form of foil or leaf, 
which is made by beating; its oxide is much used in polishing, 
under the name of putty-powder. 




CHAPTER XIII. 


METALS AND METALLURGY. 

(Continued.) 



ERCURY or quicksilver is a well-knotvn metal, of a 
brilliant silver-white color, fluid and mobile at ord¬ 
inary temperatures; hence the name of live or quick 
silver. In this property of fluidity it differs from -all 
other metals — never becoming solid unless when 
subjected to a degree of cold equal to 39° or 40° 
Fahrenheit, that is, 39 or 40 degrees below zero. In 
this condition it has been obtained by Arctic ex¬ 
plorers, who, under extreme depressions of temper¬ 
ature, found their barometers and thermometers 
useless, and who, for curiosity’s sake, have shot 
bullets of it from their muskets. When solid it is 
found to be malleable, a fact of no practical importance, how¬ 
ever. It boils and vaporizes at about 600° Fahrenheit. Its specific 
gravity is about 13.59; thus ranking above all other metals, with 
the exception of platinum, gold and tungsten; it is found native 
in small quantities — that is, in minute dewy globules; but for 
commercial purposes it is always extracted from the ore called 
cinnabar. This ore is a sulphuret of the metal, of a red color — 
except in the hepatic variety, which is gray — massive and 
crystallized, occurring in veins, and distributed variously through 
the matrix of the veinstone. It is found but sparingly in the 
primitive rocks; the principal deposits of the mercurial ore being, 
in all parts of the world, in the middle secondary strata — that 
is, in the upper portions of the coal-measures, and in the 
magnesian limestone and new red sandstone. 

138 











ANTIMONY. 


139 


The most productive mines of cinnabar are those of Almaden, 
near Cordova, in Spain; of Idria in Austria; of Huancavelica in 
Peru, at an elevation of 14,500 feet above the level of the sea. 
Quicksilver is also procured in several of the Chinese prov¬ 
inces. 

Mercury is chiefly employed for amalgamation with other 
metals, chiefly gold and silver, so as to extract them from their 
ores; and it is almost solely for this purpose that it is imported 
into South America and Mexico. It is used in gilding, in silver¬ 
ing mirrors, in filling thermometer and barometer tubes; in 
various philosophical apparatus; and in chemistry it furnishes 
the only means of collecting, in the pneumatic trough, such 
gases as would be absorbed by water. In medicine it is em¬ 
ployed in several forms; the whitish insipid powder called 
calomel is the sub-chloride of mercury; and the acrid, nauseous 
white substance known as corrosive sublimate is the perchloride. 
This sublimate has been applied as an antiseptic in the preven¬ 
tion of the dry-rot in lumber, of the mildewing of sail-cloth, 
and the like. Mercury is also used in the making of vermilion, 
that beautiful pigment being prepared from an artificial cin¬ 
nabar, composed of eight parts of mercury and one of sulphur. 
When mercury and sulphur are triturated together in a mortar, 
the latter gradually disappears, and the whole assumes the form 
of a black powder denominated ethiops mineral ; if this powder be 
heated red-hot, it sublimes, and, on a proper vessel being placed 
to receive it, a cake is obtained, of a fine red color, which, 
when reduced to powder, forms the vermilion of commerce. 
An amalgam of mercury and silver is used by dentists for stop¬ 
ping decayed teeth. 

ANTIMONY. 

This metal was discovered by Basil Valentine in 1490, and 
has since been extensively employed in medicine, in the com¬ 
position of printing types, stereotype plates, music plates, and 
the like; and also in the white-metal utensils now so generally 
used in the place of silver. When pure, it is of a silver-white 



140 BISMUTH. 

color, brittle-, has a specific gravity of 6.8, and melts readily at a 
red heat. The oxides and salts of antimony are used in medi¬ 
cine, their general effects being purgative, sudorific and emetic. 
The metallic ore of commerce contains sulphur and other 
impurities, and is much more easily fused than the pure metal, 
which has a hardness about that of gold. Its tenacity is also 
considerable — a wire of one-tenth of an inch in diameter being 
capable of supporting a weight of ten pounds. The powder of 
the sulphuret is very black, and was employed by women in 
ancient times to stain their eyebrows and eyelids. 

Antimony is never applied to any useful purpose as an inde¬ 
pendent metal, in consequence of its brittleness and liability to 
corrosion; but it forms several valuable and extensively employed 
alloys. Thus, alloyed with lead, in the proportion of 2 to 6, 
with greater or less proportions of copper or tin, it constitutes 
the metal used for printing-types ; used with lead alone the 
compound forms the rather brittle plates upon which music is 
engraved; and an alloy of 112 lead, 18 antimony, and 2 block 
tin, forms a convenient stereotype metal. These alloys have 
the property of expanding as they cool; the consequence of 
which is, that the types come out of the mold with sharp and 
well-defined edges. Hard pewter is made of 12 parts of tin and 

1 of antimony ; and Britannia, or white-metal spoons, knives and 
forks, etc., are composed of 100 tin, 8 antimony, 2 bismuth, and 

2 copper. The manufacturer of pastes, or fictitious gems, 
employs the oxide of antimony to give color to his so-called 
beryls, oriental topazes, and yellow diamonds. 

bismuth. 

This metal is of a brittle crystalline texture, reddish-white in 
color, and fusible at the temperature of 4978. Its hardness is 
between that of copper and lead ; it is scarcely malleable, breaks 
under the hammer, and cannot be drawn into wire. It is by no 
means a common metal. 

It is used as a flux —that is, for communicating fusibility to 
other metals, solder , for example,consisting of 1 bismuth, 5 lead. 


COBALT. 


141 


and 3 tin,—an alloy which melts at a lower temperature than 
lead. Bismuth forms the basis of sympathetic ink, a kind of 
ink with which characters may be traced on paper that are 
invisible when cold, but become visible by exposure to heat, and 
again fade when cool, by absorbing moisture from the air. The 
powder called pearl-white, used in medicine, is obtained from 
the nitrate of the metal, which, when dropped into water, falls 
down as a white powder, insoluble in water. The nitrate has 
also been employed as. a mordant for lilac and violet dyes, in 
calico printing. Some of its forms seem also to have been 
employed in the preparation of cosmetics, for a story is told of a 
lady who, on visiting one of the watering-places of Germany, 
emerged from her bath as a lady of color, the chemical action of 
the mineral water having turned almost to blackness a cosmetic 
containing bismuth, which had been previously applied to her 
face. 

COBALT. 

Cobalt is a reddish-gray metal, somewhat soft; fusible at a 
temperature a little below that required for the fusion of iron. 
The finest ores are found in Saxony (Prussia), where it received 
its name ( Kolald, a devil); a term applied to it by the miners, 
who considered it unfavorable to the presence of the more impor¬ 
tant metals. It is never employed in the arts in the metallic or 
separate state ; but the impure oxides of the metal, called zaffer 
and smalts, are extensively used as coloring material. 

The oxide of cobalt is an invaluable article in the manufact¬ 
ure of porcelain and pottery; all the blue colors of which are 
derived from that substance. When fused with glass it com¬ 
municates to it a blue tint without affecting its transparency ; 
and, what is especially valuable, this color is not impaired by a 
very high temperature. So great is4he coloring power of cobalt 
that a single grain gives a full blue to 240 glasses. Cobalt blue 
or Thernard’s blue, is a beautiful pigment, prepared from the 
phosphate of cobalt, which may be employed by decorative 
painters and artists as a substitute for ultramarine. 


142 


NICKEL AND PLATINUM, 


NICKEL. 

This metal, discovered by Brandt in 1733, is exceedingly 
brittle, of a strong metallic luster, and white color, running into 
steel-gray. Its specific gravity is 5.67 ; when heated it volatilizes, 
emitting a strong odor of garlic before it fuses, and is readily 
inflammable. The pure metal is so brittle that it may be easily 
reduced to a fine powder by trituration in a mortar. The arsenic 
of commerce is the white oxide of the metal, or, more accurately, 
arsenious acid —a compound which is obtained chiefly from 
Bohemia and Saxony, in roasting the cobalt ores for making zaf- 
fer, and also by sublimation from arsenical iron pyrites. Arseni¬ 
ous acid is originally prepared in cakes, brittle, white, faintly 
sweetish in taste, and more or less translucent; for medicinal 
purposes these cakes undergo sublimation, in order to get rid of 
sulphur and other impurities. In the druggist's store it is 
usually sold in the form of a white gritty powder. 

Arsenious acid, although one of the most virulent poisons, is 
used in medicine, forming a notable ingredient, for example, in 
what are called ague-drops. It is also present as an ingredient 
in a kind of green and other dyes ; in the manufacture of flint- 
glass ; and is employed in rare instances by candle-makers, to 
impart a white and waxy appearance. 

PLATINUM OR PLATINA. 

Platinum was unknown in Europe till about the middle of the 
last century, when it began to be imported in small quantities 
from South America. It is of a whitish silvery color ; hence its 
name from the Spanish flata, silver. It is the heaviest, the 
most difficult of fusion, the most ductile, and the most flexible 
of the known metals, having a specific gravity of 21.5, and capa¬ 
ble of being hammered into leaves, or drawn into wires of 
extreme tenuity. Its hardness is between copper and iron; 
and, though very infusible, it is malleable, and capable of being 
welded at a white heat, either one piece to another, or to a bit 
of iron or steel. It is not in the least affected by the action of 


PLATINUM. 


143 


air or water, and is not capable of attack by any of the pure 
acids; but it is dissolved by chlorine, and nitro-hydrochloric 
acid {aqua regia). In ductility and indestructibility it is hardly 
inferior to gold. 

When a perfectly clean surface of platinum is presented to a 
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas, it has the extraordinary 
quality of causing them to combine, so as to form water, and 
often with such rapidity as to render the metal red hot. 

The perfection with which vessels of platinum resist the 
action of heat and air, of most of the acids, and of sqlphuret and 
mercury, renders them peculiarly valuable to the chemist; so 
that, notwithstanding the high value of the metal, which is 
between four and five times its weight in silver, it is now much 
employed for crucibles, retorts for the distillation of sulphuric 
acid, mirrors for reflecting telescopes, and by gunsmiths and 
others. 

MANGANESE. 

This is a very brittle metal, of a dusky white color, and with¬ 
out either malleability or ductility. The substance known under 
the name is the peroxide, or black oxide of the metal. It is 
found in a variety of forms; most commonly it is of an earthy 
appearance, and mixed with other ingredients, but sometimes 
in crystals of a black color and metallic luster. The metal sep¬ 
arately is of no use, but the binoxyd is a source of oxygen, and 
is largely employed in the decomposition of common salt for the 
production of chlorine for bleaching. It is also used by potters 
and glass-makers as a glaze or pigment, and by calico-printers as 
the source of certain brown shades. A certain proportion of 
manganese added to steel produces a valuable cast-steel. 

CHROMIUM. 

Chromium , from the Greek word chroma, color, discovered 
by Vaugnelin, in 1797, resembles iron in color, and is brittle and 
difficult of fusion. It is rarely to be found in its metallic state; 
but several of its compounds, as chromate of iron and chromate 
of lead, are well known in commerce. The former, a compound 
of oxide of chrome, with oxide of iron, is found, amongst other 


144 


RARE METALS. 


places, near Baltimore, Md. It appears massive, or in crystals 
of a dark color, and imperfect metallic luster. It is employed 
in the manufacture of chromate of potash, a yellow salt, largely 
employed by calico printers. Chromate of lead occurs massive 
and crystallized, of a deep orange color; but when reduced to 
powder it becomes orange-yellow. It forms an excellent pig¬ 
ment, and is used both in oil and water colors, in calico printing 
and dyeing. The other compounds chiefly in use are the oxide 
of chromium, employed to give a green color to glass and porce¬ 
lain; and chromic acid , which from its property of destroying 
most animal and vegetable coloring matters, is advantageously 
employed in calico-printing. It is this acid which gives color to 
the ruby, and the green of the emerald is owing to the oxide of 
chromium. 

RARE METALS. 

Cadmium, palladium, osmium, iridium, tungsten, molyb¬ 
denum, rhodium, vanadium, etc. 

PROPORTION'S OP VARIOUS COMPOSITIONS IN COMMON USE. 

(In 100 Parts.) 


Babbitt’s Metal.Tin 89, Copper 3.7, Antimony 7.3. 

Fine Yellow Brass.Copper 66, Zinc 34. 

Gun Metal, Valves, etc.Copper 90, Tin 10. 

White Brass.Copper 10, Zinc 80, Tin 10. 

German Silver.Copper 33 3, Zinc 33 4, Nickel 33.3. 

Church Bells.Copper 80, Zinc 5.6, Tin 10.1, Lead 4.3. 

Gongs.Copper 81.6, Tin 18.4. 

Lathe Bushes.Copper 80, Tin 20. 

Machinery Bearings.Copper 87.5, Tin 12.5. 

Muntz Metal.Copper 60, Zinc 40. 

Sheathing Metal.Copper 56, Zinc 44. 


THE EFFECTS OF HEAT ON VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 


Antimony melts at... 


Tin melts at.... 

....421 deg. 

Bismuth 

i f 

....476 “ 

Zinc “ . 

...740 “• 

Brass 

a 

,...1900 “ 

Ice “ . 

...32 “ 

Copper 

“ ..., 

. ..2548 “ 

Mercury boils at. 

...662 “ 

Glass 

“ ..., 


Naphtha “ . 

...186 “ 

Gold 


....2590 “ 

Fresh Water boils at... 

...212 “ 

Cast-Iron 

“ . 

....3479 “ 

SeaWater “ 


Lead 

a 

... 594 “ 

Ether “ 

100 “ 

Platinum 

“ . 

....3080 “ 

Oil Turpentine “ 

...304 “ 

Silver 

a 

....1250 “ 

Linseed Oil “ 

...640 “ 

Steel 

a 

....2500 “ 

Sweet Oil “ 

...412 “ 





































EXPANSION OF METALS — PRECIOUS STONES. 


145 


EXPANSION OF METALS. 

Metals expand by heat, and contract by cold ; and in almost 
all mechanical operations, unless the tendency to expand is 
allowed to act, very great strains are brought to bear upon the 
material. The following table shows the amount of expansion 
for different materials per foot: 



Expansion per 
deg. Fah. 

Expansion from 
32° to 212°. 

Iron... 

.0000067 

.00122 

Steel. 

.0000069 

.00124 

Copper. 

.0000090 

.00171 

Zinc. 

.0000160 

.00294 

Tin... 

.0000120 

.00217 


Almost all solid bodies expand equally for each degree 
between freezing and boiling, or from 32° to 212° of Fahrenheit’s 
thermometer. A bar of iron therefore, which is 12 feet long, by 
an increase of 60° of temperature becomes 50xl2x.0000067= 
12.0048 feet in length. 

PRECIOUS STONES. 

Precious stones are but compounds of carbon, alumina, silica, 
lime, etc. As none of them, however, occur in rocky masses, 
but rather as crystals, geodes, and concretions within other 
rocks, and as fashion has generally set a price upon them wholly 
disproportionate to their utility, they are best treated as a sep¬ 
arate class. Diamond is the most highly prized; it is the hardest 
known substance, and is of unsurpassed luster. Ornamental 
diamonds bring exorbitant prices. The Koo-i-noor, which is 
now the property of Queen Victoria, is valued at $500,000. The 
largest known diamond was brought to the King of Portugal 
from Brazil. It is uncut; weighs 1,680 grains; and its value is 
$30,000,000. Similar extravagant valuations are applied to the 
Russian diamond, weighing 193 karats, which after passing 
through several hands was purchased by the Empress Catherine 
for $450,000; an annuity of $20,000, and a title of nobility- 
10 












146 


DIAMOND FIELDS OF SOUTH AFEICA. 


Diamond consists solely of carbon, being in fact a crystallized 
charcoal. 

Sapphire, Ruby, Topaz, Garnet, etc., may be grouped 
together as consisting essentially of crystallized alumina, the 
specific distinctions being caused by traces of magnesia, silica, 
fluoric acid, chromic acid, etc. 

Corundum, or adamantine spar, is nearly allied to the sap¬ 
phire, being next in hardness to the diamond. It is almost a 
pure crystalline alumina, and is used for polisning and cutting 
much the same as diamonds are. 

Emery is a variety of corundum with an admixture of iron, 
which gives it a bluish-gray color. 

The Garnet belongs to the same section, and is to be found 
in various colors. 

Emerald, Beryl, Amethyst, Carnelian has silica as the pre¬ 
dominant ingredient. Fine emeralds are extremely rare. Beryl 
differs only in color. Amethyst is a pure rock crystal of a pur¬ 
plish-violet color, and of great brilliancy. It was the opinion 
among the Persians that wine drunk out of an amethyst cup 
would not intoxicate; hence the name from the Greek amethystos. 

Agate, Chalcedony, Opal, Carnelian, Sardonyx, Jasper, and 
some kindred substances may be, without much impropriety, 
regarded as merely varieties of the same mineral, having differ¬ 
ent colors and degrees of transparency. 

DIAMOND FIELDS OF SOUTH AFEICA. 

In 1867 a trader named O’Reilly was passing through Barkly, 
a small village on the banks of the Yaal River, where he slept at 
the house of a Dutchman named Van Niekirk, and saw the chil¬ 
dren playing with a bright,sparkling pebble. The stone struck him 
as being something curious, and he begged it from Van Niekirk, 
who did not like to take it away from the children, but eventually 
parted with it for the sum of five pounds. He also told O’Reilly 
that he had seen several of these kinds of pebbles in the hands 
of native chiefs, who kept them for charms. O’Reilly some weeks 
afterward turned up in Grahamstown, and showed the stone to 


HOW GOLD IS EXPORTED. 


147 


Mr. Galpin and Dr. Atherstone; they both declared it to be a 
diamond of the first water, and it was afterward sold to Sir 
Philip Wodehouse, the governor of the colony, for the sum of 
$2,500. It weighed about 21 karats. The news spread, but was 
not believed at first, and it was 1869 before any number of peo¬ 
ple were at Barkly, Pneil, and Gong-Gong, digging away in the 
river bed, removing enormous bowlders, and finding diamonds 
in fairly large quantities amongst the most beautiful pebbles and 
garnets, agates and carnelians; the presence of garnets being 
almost a guarantee of the proximity of the diamond. In 1869 
was found the first large diamond, called the Star of South 
Africa. It is pear-shaped, and weighed 83| karats in the rough. 
Messrs. Lilienfeld Brothers, of Hope Town, purchased it for 
$55,000. They were afterward offered $200,000 for it in Port 
Elizabeth, 'by a syndicate of merchants, but thinking it was 
worth quite $500,000 refused to sell it, and eventually sold it to 
Hunt & Roskell for $100,000, who in their turn sold it to Lord 
Dudley, and about twelve years ago it could be seen in a tiara of 
Lady Dudley's which was exhibited at the South Kensington Mu¬ 
seum. Then Mr. Spalding found his diamond weighing 287 kar¬ 
ats, slightly off-colored. Thousands now flocked to the river dig¬ 
gings, and prosperity began in all directions. It is strange but 
true that all the great discoveries of minerals and precious 
stones have been by pure accident. 

HOW GOLD IS EXPORTED. 

Each keg contains $50,000 in clear gold. It is from the Bank 
of America, at New York, that most of the gold is shipped from 
that city. The foreign steamships sailing from this city now 
carry little or no gold, although the reverse was the case years 
ago. The shipments of gold are not generally on the bank's 
account. At a first glance persons might well suppose that when 
the demand rises for gold to send abroad the shipper would only 
have to send in his order for his hundreds of thousands to the 
Sub-Treasury, where millions of specie are on deposit. But 
there are sufficient reasons why this plan will not work. The 
Sub-Treasury can pay out its coin only to creditors of the gov- 


148 


HOW GOLD IS EXPORTED. 


ernment. With the Bank of America the associated banks keep 
on deposit constantly an enormous sum of gold, sometimes 
amounting to $40,000,000. To the members of the bank asso¬ 
ciation the Bank of America issues its own certificates against 
these deposits redeemable on demand. So, when there is occa¬ 
sion for making a gold shipment, the coin is prepared for that 
purpose in the rear office of that bank; here it is bagged and 
kegged and made ready for shipment. Kegs in which gold is 
packed — specie kegs, as they are called — are made of extra hard 
wood. They must have an extra iron hoop. Specie is not thrown 
loosely into a keg, nor, upon the other hand, is it carefully 
wrapped in tissue paper and piled up one coin upon another. 
The keg serves only as a protection for canvas bags, into which 
the gold is placed in the ordinary hit-and-miss fashion of pen¬ 
nies in a man’s pocket. Into each bag goes $5,000, and ten bags 
fill a keg. In the interest of security each keg is treated to what 
is technically known among the shippers as the red-taping pro¬ 
cess. At each end of the keg, in the projecting rim of the 
staves above the head, are bored four holes at equidistant inter¬ 
vals. A piece of red tape is run through these holes, crossing 
on the head of the keg, and the ends finally meet in the center. 
At the point of meeting the tape is sealed to the keg’s head by 
wax bearing the stamp of the shipper. Gold crosses the ocean 
very much as does every other kind of freight, without any 
special looking after. The average rate of insurance is about 
$2,000 on a shipment of $1,000,000. There are shippers who do 
not insure. Having to ship $1,000,000, they give it in equal 
parts to half a dozen different vessels. It is a strict rule with 
some firms never to trust more than $250,000 at a time on any 
one ship. A certain party furnishes all the kegs for gold and 
packs them. The man who does this is a monopolist in his way. 
Shippers of large amounts always lose a few dollars by abrasion, 
but not exceeding sixteen ounces on a million-dollar shipment. 
The only protection to be found against abrasion lies in the 
shipment of gold in bars instead of coin. Gold bars are not 
readily obtained. 


CHAPTER XIV. 


RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES. 



HE following figures exhibit the growth of the rail¬ 
way system from 1827, when the first line was 
opened at Quincy, Massachusetts, to the end of the 
year .1887: 


EXTENT OF LINES. 


1830. 


1870. 


1840. 

..... 2,818 “ 

1880. 

. 84,393 “ 

1850. 

. 9,201 “ 

1885. 

.125,379 “ 

1860. 

.30,635 “ 

1887. 

.151,060 “ 


In 1884 there were throughout the whole world 
about 291,000 miles of railway. 

The total capital invested in United States rail¬ 


ways in 1885 was $7,676,399,054; the gross yearly earnings, 


$763,306,608; and the net earnings, $266,513,911. 


TELEGRAPHS. 

These are mostly in the hands of the Western Union Tele¬ 
graph Company. In 1886 they had 151,832 miles of line; 489,- 
607 miles of wire; and 15,142 offices. The number of messages 
was 43,289,807. 

The aggregate mileage of telegraph lines in the United 
States, open for public business, exceeds 170,000 miles. 

TELEPHONES. 


In 1886 there were 114,371 miles of telephone wire belonging 
to one company; 330,040 telephones, with 752 exchanges. The 
extent of mileage of telegraph wire put up for telephone use in 
the United States is estimated at 130,000 miles. 

149 



















150 RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 


RAILWAY ACCIDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES. 


1873 

Killed. 

...276... 

Injured. 
.1,172 

1881. 

Killed. 

.414. 

Injured. 
.1,597 

1874 . 

.204. 

. 778 

1882 . 

.380. 

.1,588 

1875 . 

.234. 

.1,107 

1883 . 

.474. 

.1,954 

1876 . 

.323. 

.1,097 

1884 . 

.389. 

.1,760 

1877 . 

.214. 

.1,047 

1885 . 

.307. 

.1,530 

1878 .. 

.204. 

. 756 

1886 . 

.391_ 

.1,620 

1879 . 

.185. 

. 709 

1887 . 

.401. 

.1,726 

1880 . 

.315. 

.1,172 





These figures apply to accidents caused by wrecking of trains 
only. A larger number of casualties occur from the crossing 
and walking along railroad tracks, and by persons falling from 
cars; but these are not reported. 

ELECTRIC MACHINES, 

The electric properties of rubbed amber are said to have been 
known to Thales 600 b.c. and Pliny 70 a.d. 

Otto Yon Guericke constructed the first electric machine (a 
globe of sulphur) about 1647. Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, 
discovered that the human body conducts electricity, and that 
electricity acts at a distance, 1720-36; the Leyden jar (vial or 
bottle) discovered by Kleist, 1745; Franklin demonstrated the 
identity of the electric spark and lightning, drawing down elec¬ 
tricity from a cloud by means of a kite, 1752; at a picnic he 
“killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an elec¬ 
tric jack, before a fire kindled by the electric bottle," 1748; dis¬ 
coveries of Galvani and Volta, 1791-3; telegraphs invented by 
Schilling, Gauss and Weber, 1833; by Steinheil and by Masson, 
1837; by Morse (died 1872), 1837; the first telegraph line in 
America set up from Washington to Baltimore, 1844; submarine 
telegraph from Dover to Calais laid 1851; the American combi¬ 
nation system, conveying 2,000 words an hour, adopted by the 
American Telegraph Company, 1859; the Atlantic telegraph 
projected by Peter Cooper, Cyrus W. Field, Moses Taylor, Mar¬ 
shall O. Roberts and others, including Prof. Morse, 1853; two at¬ 
tempts failed, but on the third a junction was effected by 2,050 
miles of wire between Valentia in Ireland and Newfoundland. 
































ELECTRIC LIGHT. — ELECTROTYPE. 151 

The first message was from the Queen of England to the Presi¬ 
dent of the United States, and the second was his reply, 1858 ; a 
second cable was laid, 1866; European end of the French At¬ 
lantic cable laid at Brest, June 17th, and the American end at 
Duxbury, Mass., July 23d, 1869; the Brazil telegraph cablecom- 
pletely laid, 1873. International Congress of Electricians at 
Paris, 1881. 

Electric Clock. —Prof. Wheatstone invented an electro-mag¬ 
netic telegraph clock in 1840. 

ELECTRIC LIGHT. 

Humphrey Davy produced electric light with carbon points, 
1802 ; the French government ordered eight light-houses to be 
illuminated by Watson's electric light, 1858 ; the electric light 
successfully employed for photography, 1876 ; T. E. Edison an¬ 
nounced at New York his discovery of a method of producing a 
great number of lights and much mechanical power by his 
“ telemachon, 99 which may be worked by water-power or steam ; 
panic among gas companies, 1878. 

Electric Loom .—Invented by M. Bonelli of Turin, 1860. 

Electric Pen.— Invented by T. E. Edison, 1877. 

Electro-tint .—By which engravings may not only be copied 
from other engraved plates, but the engraving itself actually 
produced by electrical agency, 1841-2. 

ELECTROTYPE. 

Mr. Spencer in England and Prof. Jacobi, in Russia, made 
the first successful experiments in this art in 1837 and 1838. 
Since then Mr. A. Smee and others have perfected the pro¬ 
cess. In 1840 Robert Murray applied black-lead to non-metal- 
lic bodies as a conducting surface, and in the same year Ruolz 
and Elkington applied it to gilding and silver-plating. Since 
1850, printing-types and wood-cuts, and casts from them, have 
been electrotyped with copper, and the process is now largely 
adopted by the arts. 

Electric Railway .—By Werner Siemonsand Halske opened 
near Berlin, 1881. 


152 


THE TELEPHONE. — PHOTOGRAPHY. 


THE TELEPHONE. 

An apparatus for conveying articulate and musical sounds 
by means of wire, vibrating rods, threads, or magnetic-electricity. 
Robert Hook transmitted sounds to a distance by means of ex¬ 
tended wire, 1667 ; Prof. Pepper lectured on Wheatstone's tele¬ 
phone before the Queen, 1855; experiments at Boston with 
Prof. A. Graham Bell's articulating telephone ; speech, music, 
singing, laughing, distinctly heard at Salem, eighteen miles 
distant, 1877; Edison's carbon ‘‘loud speaking" telephone, 1878. 

Telephotography .—A process for transmitting to a distance 
images of objects by the agency of electricity and selenium, was 
invented by Sherwall Bidwell early in 1881. 

PHOTOGRAPHY. 

The action of light on the chloride of silver was known as early 
as the sixteenth century. Wedge wood may be regarded as the 
first photographer, 1802. Louis J. M. Daguerre commenced his 
experiments in 1824 ; the production of Daguerreotype plates was 
announced in January, 1839 ; the Photographic Society of 
London was established in 1853 ; the small photographic por¬ 
traits termed cartes de visite are said to have been first taken at 
Nice by M. Terrier in 1857. The Duke of Parma had his por¬ 
trait placed upon his visiting card, and his example was soon fol¬ 
lowed. In 1861 Mr. Thomson, Weymouth, England, photo¬ 
graphed the bottom of the sea. Photography was successfully 
applied to the transfer of works of art to wood blocks in 1861. 
H. Van der Weyde, an American artist, succeeded in making 
electric light very effectual in photography, 1876-8. Celestial 
photography began with Prof. Bond of Cambridge, U. S., who 
exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. Dr. Henry Draper 
of New York, in 1859 made a photograph of the moon fifty 
inches in diameter, the largest and best ever made. In 1872 Dr. 
Draper, with a telescope and apparatus constructed by himself 
for the purpose, photographed the spectra of the-stars for the 
first time in the history of celestial photography. In 1880 and 
1881 he photographed the nebulae in Orion. 



\ 



THE FIRST PRINTING 
























































































































































































































































































































































aC ( 









































































































; : 

























































































































PRINTING. 


153 


Photoheliograph .—An apparatus for registering the position of 
the sun's spots by means of clockwork and photography by Sir 
John Herschel about 1857. 

Photogalvanography .—The art of producing engravings by 
the action of light and electricity; the earliest specimens were 
produced by Nicephore Niepee in 1827. 

Photo-sculpture. —M. Villeme's employment of photographs 
in the formation of sculpture was announced in 1863. 

PRINTING. 

Block printing was invented by the Chinese about 593 A. D. 
Movable types made in the tenth century. The honor of first 
printing with single types in Europe has been appropriated to 
Mentz, Strasburg, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle, 
and Augsburg, but the claims of the first three only are entitled 
to attention. 

Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurens 
Jansen Coster of Haarlem, who printed with blocks a book of 
images and letters about 1438 ; John Fust established a printing 
office at Mentz, 1442 ; John Gutenberg invented cut metal types 
and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Latin Bible 
at Mentz, 1450-5 ; William Caxton set up the first press at West¬ 
minster, England, 1470; Aldus cast the Greek alphabet and a 
Greek book printed 1476; he introduced italics; produced the 
“ Pentateuch" in Hebrew, 1482; printing used in Scotland, 1509; 
the “ Liturgy , 99 the first book printed in Ireland by Humphrey 
Powell, 1550; first printing in America in New England, when 
the Freeman’s Oath and an almanac were printed 1639; “Bay 
Psalm Book" printed at Cambridge, Mass., 1640; stereotype 
printing practiced by William Ged of Edinburgh about 1730; 
the present mode of stereotype invented about 1779; the compos¬ 
ing-machine used in America, 1863. 

THE TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINE. 

The best known and most perfect type-composing and dis¬ 
tributing machine is that invented by Timothy Alden of Yar- 


154 


TYPE-WRITERS. 


mouth. Mass., born 1819, died 1858. It was first patented in 
1856. This machine was imperfect, and was afterwards much 
improved by Henry W. Alden, cousin of the inventor. He was 
assisted in this work by W. Mackay. The machine thus improved 
was worked in the Tribune office during the years 1855-60. The 
necessity of a “distributor” that would not require the type to 
be classified, had long been felt, and John T. Slinger, a practi¬ 
cal scientific machinist, discovered a method by which it could 
be effected. He also remedied several minor defects, and rend¬ 
ered the machine practical and useful. 

TYPE-WRITERS. 

M. Foucault sent to the Paris exhibition in 1855 a writing- 
machine for the blind; and several were invented by Wheat¬ 
stone. After successive improvements, Messrs. Remington of 
this country in 1873 contracted to construct 35,000. The speed 
is seventy-five words to a minute. 

The action of the type-writer somewhat resembles that of 
the piano-forte. Pressure upon a key marked with a letter 
raises a hammer with a type-cut letter which presses upon the 
paper; provision is made for inking the type, shifting, etc. 

There are numerous other inventions which are of a similar 
description to that given above, but there is not in any of them 
a distinctive feature so marked as to call for specific mention. 

REMARKABLE RAILROAD WRECKS. 

September 15, 1830. William Huskinson, M. P. and pro¬ 
moter of the railway, was killed on the day of its opening whilst 
standing on the track talking to the Duke of Wellington. It 
was the first railroad in England, between Liverpool and Man¬ 
chester. 

December 21+, 181+1. Accident on the Great Western Rail¬ 
road, England. A train, moving in a fog, came in contact with 
a mass of earth, which had slipped from the embankment in a 
cutting ; eight persons were killed and seventeen injured. 

May 8, 181+2 . Catastrophe at Versailles, France, on the 


RAILWAY WRECKS. 


155 


birthday of Louis Philippe, which was celebrated at Versailles, 
twelve miles from Paris. On some of the visitors returning to 
the city in a crowded train, an axle broke, carriages were piled 
on each other and took fire. Fifty-two or more persons were 
killed and forty injured. Whole families perished. 

May 6, 1853. Accident at Norwalk, where the railroad 
crosses a small inlet of Long Island Sound by means of a draw¬ 
bridge. Whilst the bridge was open, the foremost carriages of 
a passenger train from Boston were precipitated into the water. 
More than one hundred persons were plunged into the channel; 
forty-six lost their lives and thirty were more or less severely 
injured. 

November 1, 1855. On the Pacific Railroad of Missouri, the 
bridge over the Gasconade gave way under an excursion train. 
Twenty-two lives sacrificed ; fifty injured. 

October , 1851/.. Accident on the Great Western Railroad of 
Canada. A passenger train, approaching Detroit, came into 
collision with a gravel train, and was thrown off the track, and 
down an embankment. Some of the cars were telescoped. Forty- 
seven persons were killed and sixty injured. 

July 17, 1856. Wreck at Campbell station, about twelve 
miles from Philadelphia. An excursion train, carrying about 
eleven hundred Sunday-School children, came into collision 
with a regular train on a single track. Five cars were burned ; 
sixty-six persons perished and more than one hundred were 
injured. 

March 17, 1857. The Des Jardines Canal disaster. The 
Great Western Railroad here crosses the canal at an elevation of 
sixty feet. It was winter and the ice was two feet thick. The 
train went off the track, and on to the timbers of the bridge 
which finally yielded, the cars being precipitated below. There 
were marvelous escapes, but out of ninety persons sixty per¬ 
ished, including every woman and child. 

June 17, 1858. Catastrophe near Port Jervis on the Erie 
Railway. The express from New York, between Otisville and 




156 


RAILWAY WRECKS. 


Port Jervis, came upon a broken rail. The two last cars were 
derailed, and breaking the coupling, went over an embankment 
thirty feet high. Six persons were killed and thirty injured. 

August 25, 1861. Accident on the London and Brighton 
Railway, England. A collision occurred far within Croydon 
tunnel, which is 1 \ miles long, between an excursion and ; n 
accommodation train. Twenty-three corpses were taken out, 
and one hundred and seventy-six were injured. 

June 25, 1861^. Lamentable accident to a party of over 500 
immigrants, chiefly Poles, Germans and Norwegians of the better 
class, on the Grand Trunk Railroad of Canada, at the Richelieu 
river, Beloeil. The iron drawbridge was open, and the entire 
train went down forty-five feet, sinking a barge which was 
passing through. About one hundred perished and hundreds 
were injured. 

August 16, 1865. Accident on the Housatonic Road of 
Connecticut. An engine ran into a passenger train destroying 
the rear car and a portion of the next, when its .boiler burst. 
Eleven persons were killed and seventeen badly injured. 

March 7, 1865. On the Camden and Amboy Road, passing 
through Bristol, about thirty miles from Philadelphia, the express 
train from Washington to New York dashed into the rear of an 
“owl train.” There were about fifty sufferers, mostly soldiers, 
on their way home from the army on furlough. 

December 18, 1867. Terrible calamity on the Lake Shore 
Road at Angola, a small way station in the extreme western part 
of New York. Crossing a bridge across a ravine there, two 
derailed cars were precipitated over the side. In the foremost 
but one person was killed, but in the last, which was burned, 
forty-one persons are supposed to have oerished, and only three 
escaped. 

August 20, 1868. Accident at Abergele, Wales, to the “ Irish 
Mail," the most famous train run in England. It ran into an 
oil train, and, taking fire, the foremost carriages were utterly 
consumed, and every person in them perished. The engineer 


RAILWAY WRECKS. 


157 


succeeded in uncoupling six carriages and drawing them away 
from the rest. No one was injured. It was annihilation or 
complete escape. 

February 6 , 1871. At Wappinger’s Creek, not far from 
New Hamburg. A terrible affair; derailment; collision on a 
bridge in the darkness of night with oil cars ; blazing fire. The 
engineer Timmons died at his post like a hero ; twenty-one per¬ 
sons lost their lives, and a large number were injured. 

August 26, 1871. Catastrophe at Revere, six miles from 
Boston, on the Eastern Railroad of Massachusetts ; frightful 
rear-end collision. Twenty-nine persons perished and fifty- 
seven were injured. 

December 21+, 1872. Near Prospect, N. Y., on the Buffalo, 
Corry & Pittsburg Road. 4 trestle bridge gave way, the train 
going down thirty feet into a ravine ; the cars caught fire from 
the stoves, and nineteen lives were lost, mostly bj - burning. 

December 2\\, 1871/.. Accident at Shepton-on-Cherwell, Eng¬ 
land ; caused by derailment; thirty-four passengers perished and 
sixty-five were injured. 

December 29 , 1876. Terrible disaster at Ashtabula, Ohio. 
The bridge, a span of one hundred and fifty feet, over a ravine 
sixty-nine feet deep, gave way. The train was precipitated to 
the bottom ; fire broke out, and in a few minutes there was a 
human holocaust. Many escaped as by a miracle, but some 
eighty persons are supposed to have lost their lives, and more 
than sixty were injured. 

April H, 1876. Accident at Carr’s Rock, sixteen miles west 
of Port Jervis; caused by derailment. Four carriages went over 
the embankment, and rolled down into the ravine. Twenty- 
four persons were killed and eighty injured. 

August 9 , 1877. Catastrophe on the Long Branch line of the 
Central Road of New Jersey, at the Shrewsbury river. A 
derailed train plunged over the side of the bridge; seventy per¬ 
sons were injured, of whom five subsequently died. 

January 15, 1878 . On the Connecticut Western Road, half 


158 


RAILWAY WRECKS. 


a mile west of Tariff ville. A party of excursionists were return¬ 
ing from a Moody and Sankey meeting, on a special train, when 
a bridge of two spans of one hundred and sixty-three feet each, 
crossing the Farmington river, gave way. Thirteen persons were 
crushed to death or drowned, and thirty-three others injured. 

May, 31, 1879. Frightful catastrophe on the Tay Bridge, 
Dundee, Scotland. During a hurricane a passenger train and 
the bridge itself were blown into the river. Not a soul escaped 
to tell the tale. About seventy-four lives were lost. The bridge 
has just been rebuilt. 

June 2Jf, 1881. Catastrophe in Mexico, through the fall of a 
bridge near Cuartla. The train was precipitated into the river 
Antonio, and about two hundred lives lost. 

January IS, 1882. The two rear cars of the Atlantic 
express from the west on the New York Central and Hudson 
River Railway were crushed and jammed together, by the Tarry- 
town local train near Spuyten Duyvil creek. Twelve persons 
were killed, some of them being burned to a cinder. About 
forty were injured. 

January 12, 188S. On the Wabash Road near Olmstead; 
train derailed; five persons fatally injured and nine seriously. 

January 19, 1883. The Southern express from San Fran¬ 
cisco was wrecked near Sehachapi station, Kern county. The 
train broke away down a grade of one hundred and twenty feet 
to the mile. The hindmost sleeper jumped the track, and went 
over the embankment; fire ensued, and a number of persons 
were roasted to death. Twenty-one perished, eleven corpses 
being beyond recognition. 

February 1, 1881/.. Accident eight miles north of Indian¬ 
apolis, Indiana. The span of a bridge over the White river 
gave way, and three cars were dropped into the river. Six 
persons lost their lives, of whom five were burned beyond recog¬ 
nition. There were ten injured. 

June Ilf, 188If. On the Camden and Atlantic Railroad 
near Ashland. An accommodation and an excursion train col- 


RAILWAY WRECKS. 


159 


lided, the latter carrying Sunday-School children. The acci¬ 
dent was caused by the non-receipt of a telegraphic message. 
Eight persons were killed and nearly a score injured. 

July 19, 188If.. Catastrophe to an excursion train two miles 
east of Canton,, Ohio, on the Connotton Valley Kailroad. There 
were two thousand passengers on board ; the train was derailed 
by a broken frog, and two carriages went over an embankment. 
No one was killed outright, but nearly one hundred were 
injured. 

October If, 188Jf. A local working train was wrecked near 
Ashland, Wisconsin, on the Omaha Road. The men were 
riding on the engine and tender; a rail pushed through the fire 
box into the boiler, releasing the steam. Fourteen were scalded, 
of whom nine died. 

November Ilf, 188If. Wreckers removed a rail at Clear Creek 
station, near Hempstead, Texas. A passenger train on the 
Houston and Texas Central Railroad was derailed and the train 
plunged into the creek. Nine persons were drowned or crushed, 
and fifteen injured. 

January 20, 1885. Collision of freight trains on the Nickel- 
Plate Road near Grand Crossing, resulting in the death of engi¬ 
neer Elies and about $20,000 damage to property. 

February 8, 1885. Accident near Creston, Iowa; collision; 
six lives lost and many injured. 

June 10, 1885. Train wrecked near Chattanooga, Tennessee. 
Six lives lost and thirteen injured. 

December 15, 1885. Catastrophe near Austell station, Geor¬ 
gia. Fourteen persons killed. 

April 7,1886. Wreck on the Fitchburg Railroad near Spring- 
field, Mass. Ten persons killed. 

September Ilf, 1886. Collision near Silver Creek, on the 
Nickel-Plate Road, N. Y. Seventeen lives sacrificed. 

October 28, 1886. Railway wreck at East Rio, Wisconsin, 
owing to a neglected switch; on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. 
Paul Railroad. Eighteen persons killed, including three sisters 
of mercy, and several injured. 


160 


RAILWAY WRECKS. 


January 5, 1887. Accident near Republic, 3| miles from 
Tiffin, Ohio. The Baltimore and Ohio fast train from New 
York crashed into a freight train that had given out on an up¬ 
grade ; fire ensued; fifteen persons were burned to death and 
about twelve injured. 

February 5, 1887. Catastrophe on the Central Vermont 
Railroad, four miles north of White River Junction. A broken 
rail threw the train on to the ties, so that it was not on the rails 
when it reached the bridge. The train crashed through the 
bridge, falling sixty feet; the cars took fire; thirty-two were 
killed, being mostly burned to a cinder, whilst over forty were 
injured. 

February 26, 1887. On the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad 
a passenger train went through a culvert; the wreck caught 
fire ; four persons were burned to death and one fatally injured. 

March 15, 1887. At Bussey Bridge, on the Dedham branch 
of the Boston and Providence Railroad, the bridge is over a 
highw'ay at an elevation of forty feet. The train was derailed 
by a broken rail and the bridge gave way ; twenty-six persons 
were killed and one hundred wounded. 

March 26, 1887. Accident to the Chicago express, on the 
Pittsburg and Fort Wayne Road, near Leetonia, Ohio. A freight 
train came up, causing a rear-end collision; two persons were 
fatally, and a number seriously, injured. 

August 11, 1887. A special excursion train of twenty cars 
with 950 people on board was wrecked by a burning culvert, at 
a point three miles east of Chats worth, Ill., on the Toledo, 
Peoria and Western Railroad. Over one hundred persons were 
killed and as many more seriously injured. 

SOME NOTABLE SHIPWRECKS. 

President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, with many 
passengers on board, sailed on March 11, 1841, and encounter¬ 
ing a terrific storm two days afterwards was never heard of 
again. In this vessel was Mr. Thomas Power, the comedian. 

Independence , was in 1853 wrecked on the coast of Lower 




















































































































































































NOTABLE SHIPWRECKS. 


161 


California, and afterwards took fire; 140 persons drowned or 
burned to death, a few escaping, who underwent the most 
dreadful sufferings on a barren shore. 

Arctic , United States mail steamer, collided in a fog with 
Vesta , a French steamer, off Newfoundland ; over 300 lives lost, 
September 27, 1854. 

Northern Belle , American vessel, wrecked near Broadstairs. 
The American government sent twenty-one silver medals and 
$1,350 to be distributed among the heroic boatmen who saved 
the crew, January 6, 1857. 

Central America , American steamer, from Havana to New 
York, foundered at sea; had on board 579 persons, of whom 
only 152 were saved ; also $2,000,000 in gold, which was lost. 
September 12, 1857. 

Pomona , an American ship, from Liverpool to New York ; 
only twenty-four persons saved out of 419. April 28, 1859. 

Royal Charter , British, on the Anglesea coast, 446 lives lost, 
and nearly $4,000,000, much of which has been recovered. 
October 26, 1859. 

Ladg Elgin , steamer, sunk through collision with schooner 
Augusta on Lake Michigan ; 287 lives lost. September 8, 1860. 

Canadian , steamer, struck on a field of ice in the straits of 
Belle Isle and foundered in half an hour ; thirty-five lives lost. 
June 4, 1861. 

Constitution, steamer, wrecked on Cape Lookout shoals; 
forty lives lost. December 25, 1865. 

Miami , steamer, exploded boilers, burned, and sunk in the 
Mississippi river ; 150 lives lost. January 30, 1866. 

Missouri, exploded her boilers on Ohio river, 100 lives lost, 
January 30, 1866. 

General Grant , on voyage from Melbourne to London, 
wrecked off Auckland Isles; only thirteen out of 100 saved. 
May, 1866. 

Evening Star, steamer, from New York to New Orleans 
foundered at sea; about 250 lives lost, October 3, 1866. 

11 



162 


NOTABLE SHIPWRECKS. 




Maqnolia, exploded boilers on Ohio river; eighty lives lost, 
March 18, 1868. 

Sea-bird, steamer, burned on Lake Michigan, 100 lives lost, 
April 9, 1868. 

United States and America, steamers on Ohio river, near 
Warsaw, Kentucky ; in collision and burned ; heavy loss of life, 
December 4, 1868. 

Missouri, steamer, New York to Havana, burned at sea; 
thirty-two lives lost, August 24, 1872. 

Waiuasset, steamer, burned on Potomac river, seventy-five 
lives lost, August 8, 1873. 

George Wolfe, exploded on Mississippi river; thirty lives 
lost, August 23, 1873. 

Pat Rogers, steamer, burned on Ohio river ; fifty lives lost, 
July 26, 1874. 

St. Clair, steamer, burned on Lake Superior; twenty-seven 
lives lost, July 10, 1876. 

Loss of twelve American whaling-ships in Arctic ice, 
reported by whaling-bark Florence; immense loss of life, 
October 12, 1876. 

News received at Gloucester, Massachusetts, of the loss of 
fourteen Gloucester fishing-schooners, with fifty lives, January 
11, 1877. 

George Washington, steamer, foundered off Cape Race; 
twenty-five lives lost, February 5, 1877. 

Huron, United States sloop of war, wrecked on coast of 
North Carolina; about 100 lives lost, November 24, 1877. 

Narragansett and Stonington , steamers, in collision on Long 
Island Sound ; the former sunk ; thirty lives lost, June 11, 1880. 

Seawauhaka, steamer, burned in East River, New York 
harbor; fifty lives lost, June 28, 1880. 

Mamie, steam-yacht, cut in two by steamer Garland, in 
Detroit river ; sixteen lives lost, July 22, 1880. 

Marion City, steamer, burned on Lake Huron; ten lives 
lost, August 29, 1880. 


CLOCKS — WATCHES. 


163 


CLOCKS AND HOROLOGY. 

The clypsedra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 158 
B.c., by Scipio Uasica; toothed wheels were applied to them 
by Clesibius, about 140 b.c. Clocks said to have been found 
by Caesar on invading Britain, 55 b.c. The only clock supposed 
to be then in the world was sent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin, King 
of France, a.d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Genoa, invented 
one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three 
feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there 
is any certain record was made by a Saracen mechanic in the 
thirteenth century. Alfred the Great is said to have measured 
time by wax tapers, and to have used lanterns to defend them 
from the wind, about 887. 

The escapement ascribed to Garbert, a. d. 1000, a great clock 
put up in Canterbury Cathedral, cost $150—1292. John Visconti 
set up one. at Genoa, 1353 ; a perfect one at Paris by Vick, 1370; 
the first portable one made, 1530. In England no clock went 
accurately before that set up at Hampton Court, 1540. 

“ ... Like a German clock— 

Still a-repairing ; ever out of frame ; 

And never going aright.” 

Shakespeare, Lore’s Labor Lost — 1598. 

The pendulum is said to have been invented by the younger 
Galileo, 1639 ; Christian Huyghens claims the invention, 1658 ; 
repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, about 1676 ; 
spiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, about 1658; 
church clocks illuminated, 1826; electric system of synchronizing 
clocks, 1878. 

WATCHES. 

Watches are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, 
1447; but it is affirmed that Robert, King of Scotland, had a watch, 
1310. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the 
first that had anything that might be called a watch, though 
some call it a small table clock, 1530. Spring pocket watches 


164 


THE TELESCOPE. 


have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke, 1658. Repeat- 
ing watches invented by Barlow, 1676. Harrison produced his 
first timepiece for determining the longitude at sea in 1735. 

THE TELESCOPE. 

It is very natural to associate the telescope with astronomy, 
for without it we should know comparatively little of the 
wonders of the heavens. Galileo appears to be justly entitled to 
the honor of having invented that form of telescope which bears 
his name. The interest excited at Venice by Galileo’s invention 
amounted almost to a frenzy. On ascending the tower of St. 
Mark that he might use one without molestation, he was recog¬ 
nized by a crowd in the street, who took possession of the 
wondrous tube and detained the impatient philosopher for 
several hours, until one after another had made experiment of 
its effects. These instruments were soon manufactured in great 
numbers, but were purchased merely as philosophical toys, and 
were carried by travelers into every corner of Europe. 

Galileo’s telescope was constructed with a leaden tube a few 
inches long, with a spectacle glass, one convex and one concave, 
at each end of its extremities. It magnified three times. lie 
improved on his first success until he could magnify a thousand 
times and bring objects thirty times nearer. Telescopes were 
made in London in 1610, a year after Galileo had completed his. 

Newton produced his reflecting telescope in 1668 ; it was 
examined by Charles II., and presented to the Boyal Society in 
1671, and is still preserved, bearing this inscription; “The 
First Reflecting Telescope ; invented by Sir Isaac Newton, and 
made with his own hands.” 

Sir William Herschel greatly improved telescopes; he dis¬ 
covered the planet Uranus in 1781, and a volcanic mountain in 
the moon in 1783 ; he completed his forty feet focal length tele¬ 
scope in 1789, and in that year discovered two other volcanic 
mountains. The very first moment his great telescope was 
directed to the heavens a new body was added to the solar 
system, namely, Saturn, and six of its satellites. The cost 


THE TELESCOPE. 


165 


of its construction was $20,000, and was paid by George 

III. 

In 1805 a telescope was made in London for the observatory 
in Madrid, costing $44,000. 

In 1828 the Earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, Ireland, a 
telescope six feet in diameter, and fifty-four feet in length, which 
can be moved with ease ; it cost $100,000. Sir David Brewster 
sketches the powers of this wonderful instrument as follows: 
“We have in the mprning walked again and again, and 
ever with new delight, along its mystic tube, and at mid¬ 
night, with its distinguished architect, pondered over the 
marvelous sights which it discloses,— the satellites, belts and 
rings of Saturn,-r-the old and new ring, which is advanc¬ 
ing with its crest of waters to the body of the planet,— the 
rocks and valleys and mountains and extinct volcanoes of 
the moon,— the crescent of Venus, with its mountainous 
outline,— the system of double and triple stars,— the neb¬ 
ulae and starry clusters of every variety of shape,— and those 
spiral nebular formations which baffle human comprehension, 
and constitute the greatest achievement in modern discovery.” 

In 1860 magnificent equatorial telescopes were set up in' the 
national observatories at Greenwich, England, and at Paris; 
and in 1870 a telescope thirty-three feet in length, with an 
object-glass twenty-six inches in diameter, was erected at the 
United States observatory, Washington. The largest refracting 
telescope yet made, by Howard Grubb, at Dublin, for Vienna, 
was finished and approved of in 1881. Hooke is said to have 
proposed the use of telescopes having a length of upwards of ten 
thousand feet (or nearly two miles), in order to see animals 
in the moon. Such an idea is evidently absurd ; but consider¬ 
ing the vast results which have been attained, in a compara¬ 
tively short time, there is almost no limit to what in this direction 
science may yet accomplish. All honor to the men whose extra¬ 
ordinary devotion and industry, as well as genius* have already 
carried us on so far. 


166 


THE LOCOMOTIVE. 


ORIGIN OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 

The first steam carriage seems to have been made by a French¬ 
man, Cugnat, in 1769 — the year that witnessed the birth of 
Napoleon I., Wellington, Humboldt, Mehemet Ali, the first pat¬ 
ent of Watt, the first patent of Arkwright. William Murdock, 
the able assistant of Watt, made a miniature steam carriage in 
1784, which is still extant. 

Hero, of Alexandria, in his writings describes various 
methods of employing steam as a power ; and to him is ascribed 
the aeolopile, which, although a toy, possessed the properties of 
the steam engine. He flourished about 284-241 b.c. Roger 
Bacon, who died 1292, appears to* have foreseen the application 
of steam power. The first idea of steam navigation was set 
forth in a patent obtained by Jonathan Hulls, in 1736. Watt’s 
invention of performing condensation in a separate vessel from 
the cylinder, bears date 1765 ; Thomas Paine proposed steam 
navigation in America, 1778 ; first experiment with steam navi¬ 
gation on the Thames, 1801; Fulton’s steamboat Clermont on 
the Seine, August 9, 1803 ; at New York, 1806; started a 
steamboat on the Hudson, 1807 ; Comet , built by Henry Bell, 
sailed on the Clyde, Scotland, 1812; steam applied to printing 
the Times , London, 1814 ; Rising Sun, a steamer, built by Lord 
Cochrane, crossed the Atlantic; the Savannah , a steamer of 
350 tons, sailed from New York to Liverpool in twenty-six 
days, 1819 ; steam-gun invented by Perkins in 1824; Treve- 
thick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high-pressure 
locomotive engine, 1802; the first locomotive constructed by 
George Stephenson traveled at six miles an hour, 1814 ; Quincy 
railroad, first in United States, begun 1825, finished 1826 ; first 
locomotive built in America, by Peter Cooper, in Baltimore, 
1830 ; a climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, ascended 
Mount Cenis (Switzerland) in 1865 ; Rigi mountain railway (up 
to 4,000 feet above sea level) 1871 ; first railway in Japan 
opened 1872; elevated street railways erected in New York 
City, 1877-8 ; first railway in China, from Shanghai to Oussoon 
(eleven miles), 1877-8. 


GREAT EXHIBITIONS. 


167 


TRAMWAYS. 

The first horse railroad in the world was opened on Fourth 
Avenue, New York, 1832. 

GREAT EXHIBITIONS. 

Industrial exhibitions were begun by the French, an exposi¬ 
tion having been organized and opened at Paris, in 1798. It 
was followed by ten others, the last in 1849 exceeding all the 
preceding in extent and brilliancy. The Great Exhibition of 
1851, at London, is associated especially with the name of Prince 
Albert. In proposing it he said, “Now is the time to prepare 
for a great exhibition,— an exhibition worthy of the greatness 
of the country; not merely national in its scope and benefits, 
but embracing the whole world ; and I offer myself to the public 
as their leader.” The exhibition was open 144 days, and was 
visited by 6,170,000 persons. Exhibitions, or expositions, 
have since been held in many places, including Paris, New 
York, Vienna, Montreal, Constantinople, and Melbourne. 

The Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, Pa., 1876, was 
international in character, and was opened by the President in 
the presence of the Emperor and Empress of Brazil, and 
130,000 persons. It was the most extensive of all exhibitions 
up to that time; the vista extended 1,980 feet, or three- 
eighths of a mile ; about 80,000 persons were admitted by pay¬ 
ment daily during September. It was opened May 10, and closed 
November 10. Total admitted, 9,789,392; daily average, 61,568; 
receipts, $3,813,749. 

The International Exhibition at Paris, in 1878, had its site 
on two unequal parts, divided by the Seine. The main build¬ 
ing on the Champ-de-Mars covered 263,593 square yards (765 by 
360). The exhibition was opened by the President, Marshal 
McMahon, “in the name of the Kepublic,” in presence of a 
brilliant assembly. On one fete day (August 15) 111,955 
visitors were admitted. It was opened May 1 and closed 
November 10. Total admissions, 16,032,725; daily average, 


168 


GAS-LIGHTS.—EXPRESS BUSINESS. 


82,000 ; gross receipts, 12,653,746 francs (franc equals twenty 
cents). 

GAS-LIGHTS. 

The application of coal gas to illuminate was attempted in 
Cornwall, England, in 1792 ; introduced into a foundry in Bir¬ 
mingham in 1798 ; used in a theater, 1803 ; London lighted with 
gas, 1814-20; New York, 1823-4. The first gas meter was pat¬ 
ented in 1820. 

EXPRESS BUSINESS IN CHICAGO. 

The modern express is a wonderful institution, and com¬ 
paratively few people are aware of the immense amount of busi¬ 
ness it does and the many purposes it serves. It carries freight, 
valuables and money with speed and security; collects money 
for packages ; sends perishable goods out in consignment; pays 
money by telegraph ; issues money orders; buys goods in dis¬ 
tant markets; collects notes or drafts; pays taxes; secures 
signatures to important documents, and returns the papers. 

In Chicago there are 225 wagons, and 500 horses, engaged 
all day in delivering parcels ; twelve small wagons dealing with 
money and valuables; 1,000 men handle and sort the traffic; 
and every day 100 messengers arrive from different quarters with 
freight. 

Less than fifty years ago there was only one expressman in 
America; now in the United States there are 30,000 express 
offices. The Expressman’s Benefit Association, a most valuable 
and provident undertaking, has already paid nearly $300,000 
to the widows and orphans of deceased members. 









CHAPTER XY. 


BUSINESS TERMS. 



CCEPTANCE. A draft drawn on a party and by him 
indorsed on the face with his agreement to pay it 
when due. 

Acquittance. A discharge in full. 

Ad valorem. In proportion to value. 

Assets. Funds or effects. 

Assignment. A transfer of property on certain 
conditions for stated purposes. 

Assignee. A person to whom anything is assigned. 
Assignor. ‘ The person who assigns. 

Balance. Difference between two statements or 
accounts. 

Bankrupt. A person unable to pay his debts. 

Bill of Exchange. An order for money to be paid. 

Bill of Sale. A contract sigped and sealed for the sale of 
personal property. 

Bills Payable. Name given to notes made and to be paid by 
a party. 

Bills Receivable. Notes made and to be paid to a party. 
Bond. An instrument or deed providing a money security. 
Check. An order on a bank for the payment of money. 
Capitation. A tax on every male who is of age. 

Commission. The amount or proportion charged by an 
agent in a business transaction. 

Company . An association for transacting business. 
Consideration. The sum of money or thing for which a 
transaction is made. 









170 


BUSINESS TERMS. 


Consign. To send goods, etc., to a party. 

Consignee. One to whom goods are consigned. 

Consignor. One who consigns goods. 

Contract. A bargain or agreement 
Conveyance. A document transferring property. 

Days of Grace. Three days legally allowed beyond the date 
for payment. 

Debit. To make debtor in an account or books. 

Discount. A sum taken from a bill or note. 

Dividend. Interest on stock investments, etc. 

Draft. An order for the payment of a certain sum. 

Draiver. One who draws a draft, etc. 

Drawee. The person on whom the draft is drawn. 

Executor. One appointed to carry out the provisions of a 
will. 

Exhibit. A writing or official statement. 

Mortgageor. One giving such a conveyance. 

Mortgagee. One to whom such a conveyance is given. 

Net. The amount remaining after making all deductions. 
Par Value. The face value. 

Payee. The person to whom a payment is due. 

Protest. A notary’s official notice of non-payment of a note, 
draft or check. 

Rebate. A reduction in consideration of prompt payment. 
Salvage. Compensation for assistance in saving a vessel. 
Schedule. An inventory. 

Set-off. A claim offsetting a debt. 

Sight. The time when a draft is presented. 

Suspend. To stop payment. 

Silent Partner. One who furnishes capital but whose name 
does not appear in a firm. 

Sterling. The British standard of coinage. 

Scrip. A certificate of joint stock. 

Staple. A standard commodity or production. 

Teller. A bank official who pays out and receives money. 


BUSINESS TERMS. 


m 


Voucher. A document proving a receipt or other fact. 

Face. The sum named in a note, etc. 

Foreclose. To deprive a mortgageor by legal process of his 
right of redemption. 

Gross. Entire, as gross receipts. Twelve dozen. 

Guarantee. A security 

Honor. To accept and pay a note, draft, etc. 

Hypothecate. To make a security of. 

Indorsement. A signature on the back of a bill, note, etc. 

Insolvent. Unable to pay all debts. 

Interest. A certain proportion of a sum as profit; a share. 

Inventory. A catalogue, or list. 

Joint Stock. Stock held by more than one person, or in 
company. 

Judgment. Decree of court to pay in a suit. 

Legal Tender. Money decreed by the government to be 
legal and a proper means of payment. 

Letter of Credit. A letter giving a certain credit to a person 
named therein. 

Letters Patent. A written instrument granting certain 
rights and powers. 

Letters of Administration . The instrument granting au¬ 
thority to administrators. 

Lien. A valid claim by reason of some debt. 

Liquidation. The settlement and adjustment of accounts. 

Maturity. The time when a payment is due. 

Mortgage. A conditional conveyance of property giving a 
right of redemption. 

TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, TIME, ETC. 


WEIGHTS. —TROY 

24 grains (gr.).1 pennyweight 

20 pwt.T ounce 

3.2 grains.. 1 carat, diamond weight 
Gold, silver and jewels only weighed 
thus. The ounce and pound same 
as in apothecaries’ weight. 


LONG MEASURE. 

3 barley corns. .1 inch 

12 inches.1 foot 

3 feet.1 yard 

534 yards.1 rod 

40 rods.1 furlong 

8 furlongs.1 mile 











172 


TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, TIME, ETC, 


apothecaries’ 


20 grains... 


3 scruples. 


8 drachms 


12 ounces.. 



AVOIRDUPOIS. 

16 drachms, 


16 ounces.. 


*25 lbs. 


4 qrs. 

.100 weight. 

20 cwt. 



*Onlythe coal mines of Pennsylvania, 
the eastern fishmarkets and the U. S. 
Custom House still adhere to 38 lbs. in 
the quarter. 


SQUARE MEASURE. 


144 square inches.1 sq. foot 

9 sq. ft.1 sq. yard 

30 % sq. yds.1 sq. rod 

40 sq. rods.1 sq. rood 

4 roods.1 acre. 

surveyors’. 

7.92 inches..1 link 

25 links. 1 rod 

4 rods .1 chain 

10 sq. chains J.j. acre 

160 sq. rods ) 

640 acres. ..1 sq. mile 


MEASURES.—DRY. 

2 pints (pts.).1 quart. 

8 quarts.>.1 peck. 

4 pecks.1 bushel. 

36 bushels.1 chaldron 

1 U. S. stand’rd (Winchester) bush¬ 
el 1834 inches in diameter and 8 
inches deep, contains 2,150.4 cubic 
inches. 

LIQUID OR WINE. 

4 gills.1 pint. 

2 pints.1 quart. 

4 quarts.1 gallon. 

31*4 gallons.1 barrel, 

2 barrels.1 hogshead. 

U. S. standard 

Gallon.231 cubic inches. 

Beer “.231 “ “ 

31 gallons.1 bbl. 

OTHER LIQUIDS. 

1 gallon oil weighs 9.32 lbs. avoir. 
1 “ distilled water 

weighs 8.35 “ “ 

1 “sea water “ 10.32 “ “ 

1 “ proof spirits “ 9.08 “ “ 


CUBIC MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches.1 cubic foot 

27 “ feet.1 “ yard 

128 “ “.1 cord [wood] 

40 “ “.1 ton [shipping] 

2150.4 “ inches. .1 standard bushel 

268. 8 “ “.1 “ gallon 

1 “ foot_4-5 of a bushel. 

To find the number of bushels in 
a bin of any dimensions, find the 
number of cubic feet by multiply¬ 
ing the three dimensions of the bin 
in feet; deduct one-fifth and the re¬ 
sult is the number of bushels. 

CLOTH MEASURE. 

2 % inches.1 nail 

4 nails.1 quarter 

4 quarters.1 yard 

MISCELLANEOUS.—IRON, LEAD, ETC. 

14 lbs.1 stone 

21}4 stones.1 pig 

8 pigs... .1 fother 













































TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, TIME, ETC, 


173 


TIME. 

00 seconds.1 minute 

60 minutes.1 hour 

24 hours.1 day 

7 days .1 week 

4 weeks.1 lunar month. 

February has 28 days except in leap 
year when it has 29. April, June, 
September and November 30, all the 
others have 31 days. 

52 weeks and one day ) 

12 calendar months ) 


1 year 


365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 
49 seconds.1 solar year. 


CIRCULAR OR ASTRONOMICAL 


MEASURE. 

60 seconds. .. 

60 minutes. 

30 degrees. 

90 degrees..... 

4 quadrants. 


.. 1 minute 
..1 degree 

.1 sign 

1 quadraDt 
..1 circle. 


BEEP, PORK, ETC. 


200 lbs. 


196 lbs. [flour]. 


100 lbs. [fish].. 


3 inches. 


4 “. 


9 “. 




18 “. 


21.8 “. 


234 feet. 


3 


PAPER COUNTS. 

24 sheets.. 


1034 quires.... 


20 “.. 


2 reams. 


5 bundles. 


GROSS AND 

GREAT GROSS. 

12 dozen. 



12 gross.1 great gross. 


STANDARD MEASURES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The Standard Gallon measures 231 cubic inches, capable of 
holding 8.339 pounds avoirdupois distilled water at its maxi¬ 
mum density, 39.83 degrees Fahrenheit and 30 inches barometer 
weight. 

* The Standard Bushel measures 2,150.4 cubic inches=77.627,- 
413 pounds avoirdupois distilled water at the same temperature 
and barometer; its dimensions are 18|- inches inside diameter, 
19£ inches outside and 8 inches deep. When heaped the cone 
must not be less than 6 inches high. 

The Standard Pound avoirdupois is the weight of 27.7015 
cubic inches distilled water under the same conditions and 
weighed in the air. 

TO MEASURE A CIRCLE. 

Multiply the diameter by 3.1416 for the circumference. To 

































174 


STANDARD MEASURES. 


find the diameter from the circumference multiply the latter by 
.31831. The square of the diameter multiplied by .7854 equals 
the area. The square of circumference multiplied by .07958 
equals the area. 

HOW MANY TONS IN A LOAD OF HAY. 

Multiply the length, breadth and height together in yards 
and divide by 20. 

THE NUMBER OF CORDS OF WOOD IN A PILE. 

Multiply together the length, breadth and height and 
divide by 128. 

MEASURING TIMBER. 

To find the number of cubic feet in round timber, add the 
circumference of the larger and smaller ends and divide by two; 
multiply the square of one-fourth of the result by the length in 
feet; you have then four-fifths of the contents in cubic feet; 
one-fifth being usually allowed for waste in sawing. 

MEASUREMENT OF LUMBER. 

Multiply length in feet by breadth in inches and divide by 12 
for inch boards; the quotient gives contents in feet. For 
boards 1£ inches thick, add one-quarter to the quotient; if 1|, 
add one-half; if 2 inches thick, divide by 6 instead of 12; if 
3 inches, divide by 4, and so on. 


SIZES OF PAPER, CARD BOARD, ETC. 

Letter . . . 10x16 Folio Post 

Flat Cap . . 14x17 Medium 

Crown .. . 15x19 Royal 

Demy . . . 16x21 Card Board 

Colored medium cover paper 20x25. 

Glazed and plated cover paper 20x24. 


SIZES OF BOOKS. 


. 17x22 

18x23 
. 19x24 
. 22x28 


Books now are nearly all made up, of whatever size, of a num¬ 
ber of “ signatures ” which consist of a sheet folded so as to make 



RULES FOR CASTING INTEREST. 


175 


8 leaves or 16 pages. Formerly, however, there were designations 
universally recognized which it is still of some importance to be 
acquainted with. Folio size was obtained by folding a sheet in 
2 leaves ; quarto , or 4to, by folding in 4 leaves ; octavo , or 8vo, 
in 8 leaves; Duodecimo, or 12mo, in 12 leaves. Sixteenmo, or 
16mo, in 16 leaves. The names are still retained to designate 
books, though the reason for them has ceased. 

TERM PENNY AS APPLIED TO NAILS. 

The term penny as applied to nails is generally supposed to 
have been derived from pound. It originally meant so many 
pounds to the thousand ; that is, six-penny means six pounds of 
nails to the thousand, ten penny, ten-pounds ter the thousand, 
and so on. We have here an example of the tendency 
gradually to abbreviate expressions until they are altered be¬ 
yond recognition. 

SHORT RULES FOR CASTING INTEREST. 

For finding the interest on any principal for any number of 
days, the answer in each case being in cents. Separate the two 
right hand figures to express it in dollars and cents: 

Four Per Cent. —Multiply the principal by the number of 
days to run ; separate the right hand figure from the product, 
and divide by 9. 

Five Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days, and divide by 
72. 

Six Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days ; separate right 
hand figure and divide by 6. 

Seven Per Cent. —To find the interest on any sum at 7 per 
cent., take the interest given by the tables at 6 per cent., add 
one-sixth to that amount, and you have the interest at 7 per 
cent. 

Eight Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days ; divide by 
45. 

Nine Per Cent.— Multiply by number of days; separate 
right hand figure and divide by 4. 


176 


PATENTS. 


Ten Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days, and divide by 
36. 

Twelve Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days; separate 
right hand figure and divide by 3. 

Fifteen Per Cent,— Multiply by number of days, and divide 
by 24. 

Eighteen Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days ; separate 
right hand figure and divide by 2. 

Twenty Per Cent. —Multiply by number of days and divide 
by 18. 

A short way for reckoning interest on odd days, at any rate 
per cent., is as follows : Multiply the principal by the number 
of days, and for 6 per cent., divide by 60; for 7 per cent., by 
51; for 8 per cent., by 45; for 9 per cent., by 40; for 10 per 
cent., by 36 ; for 12 per cent., by 30. 

TAKING OUT PATENTS. 

Preliminary Examination. —Whenever an invention has been 
made, the question arises whether the same be patentable or 
not. This can best be ascertained to a reasonable degree of 
certainty by a preliminary examination or search in the United 
States Patent Office at Washington. A sketch or rough model 
and a brief description of the invention is required. The pre¬ 
liminary examination serves to disclose the state of the art, but 
constitutes no guarantee that a patent will be finally obtained, 
as additional reference.* may be discovered by the Patent Office. 
Expense, $5. 

Caveats. —In some cases it is desirable to obtain a provisional 
protection for an invention which is not quite completed, for 
the purpose of establishing priority and securing time for im¬ 
proving the invention. The caveat (from the Latin, “ Beware,") 
is entered in the Secret Archives of the Patent Office, and a 
certificate of registration granted therefor. It entitles the 
caveator to notice from the Patent Office in case any other party 
files an application for a patent for the same invention. The 
duration of the caveat is one year. The government fee is $10. 


PATENTS. 


177 


Patents .—Whenever an invention is completed and rep¬ 
resented by a drawing, or embodied in a model, the application 
for a patent should be made. No models are required by the 
Patent Office, except when specially called for by the examiner 
for the better understanding of the case, or for demonstrating 
the principle of the invention. To prepare the proper applica¬ 
tion papers, a full description, together with drawings or a 
model, are required. When the papers are prepared, they are 
submitted to the inventor for signature and oath. By the 
United States Patent Laws, the inventor only can make the 
application, and no one else for him or with him. But he may 
interest other parties in his invention by assignment before or 
after the patent is granted. When the papers are properly 
executed, they are filed in the Patent Office and prosecuted 
until passed for allowance. When the application is filed in 
Patent Office, a government fee of $15 has to be paid. The 
agency fee for preparing the case and prosecuting it before the 
Patent Office is $30 for simple cases and proportionately more 
for complicated cases. When the application has been allowed 
by the Patent Office, a final fee of $20 has to be paid within 
six months from the date of allowance. The total expense of 
a patent is usually $65. The patent is granted for seventeen 
years from date of issue. When an invention, upon examina¬ 
tion, is found to be anticipated by reference to prior patents or 
applications, it is rejected partly or entirely by the Patent 
Office ; it is then amended until passed for allowance, or finally 
rejected. In the latter case appeal may be taken. When a 
case is allowed and the final fee paid into the Patent Office, it 
takes about three weeks to have the patent printed and issued. 
After issue, printed copies of any patent can be obtained at 
twenty-five cents per copy. 

Appeals .—The patent laws provide for several appeals : first, 
from the final adverse decision of the Primary Examiner to the 
“ Board of Examiners-in-Chief,” then to the Commissioner, 
and finally to the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. 

12 


178 


PATENTS. 


These appeals are subject to government fees respectively of 
$10.00, $20.00 and $25.00. By these different steps any casual 
error may be remedied, and justice obtained for the inventor. 

Renewals. —An application which has lapsed for non-pay¬ 
ment of the final fee within the six months allowed by law, may 
be renewed within two years from the date of allowance by 
payment of a new filing fee of $15. 

Re-issues. —In case a patent is found to be defective, or the 
claims not sufficiently broad in their scope to cover the inven¬ 
tion properly, a re-issue may be applied for, so as to obtain a 
new and better patent in place of the old one, which has to be 
returned for cancellation. This has to be done as soon as 
possible after the defect is discovered, and when the scope of 
the patent is to be enlarged, within tivo years from the date of 
the patent. The government fee for a re-issue is $30.00. 

Designs. —Patents are also granted for new designs, original 
configurations and ornamental forms of articles of manufacture. 
To make a design application, twelve photographs of the design 
have to be furnished. It may be taken for three, seven or 
fourteen years, the government fee being respectively, $10.00, 
$15.00 and $30.00. The time is optional, but cannot be ex¬ 
tended. 

Assignments. —Patents for invention and designs, trade¬ 
marks, labels and copyrights can be assigned. To be valid 
against subsequent bona-fide purchasers, the assignment has to 
be recorded in the Patent Office or in the office of the Librarian 
of Congress as the case may be. The expense of an assign¬ 
ment, including record fee, is usually $5.00. 

Interferences and Infringements .—An Interference is a 
proceeding before the Commissioner of Patents to determine 
the priority between different applicants or a patentee and a 
later applicant. Infringement is the violation of the rights 
granted by Letters-patent, 



SALE OF GRAIN, FLOUR, ETC. 


179 


CUSTOMS OBSERVED IN THE SALE OF GRAIN, FLOUR, ETC; 

America .—In both the United States and Canada, the Win¬ 
chester bushel is the measure of capacity, being equal to 0.96944 
imperial bushel. 

Amsterdam. —Grain is sold by weight. A last of wheat con¬ 
tains 2,400 kilogrammes, a last of rye 2,100 kilos. Payment in 
sixty days with 1 per cent discount, and 1^- per cent discount for 
cash. For the sale of rye two rules have been established. The 
first came into operation in November, 1859, and according to 
this all rye has to be sold by weight, dried rye counting 60 
kilos, to the hectolitre, and undried 70—payable net on delivery. 
The second dates from December, 1859, and according to this, 
rye must be sold by weight or measure, the prices being so much 
per last of 2,100 kilos, net. Payments, cash with 1 per cent dis¬ 
count. Quotations are given in guldens. 

Antwerp. —Grain is sold by the 100 kilos.; flour by the barrel 
of 196 pounds. The quotations are given in francs. 

Australian Colonies. —In the Australian Colonies flour is 
sold by the 100 pounds, and by the ton of 2,000 pounds; and 
wheat per bushel. 

Berlin. —Grain is sold here per 1,000 kilos., flour per 100 
kilos., gross weight sack included. On supply, wheat is sold by 
the litre of 713 grains, payment within eight days. Rye is sold 
in lots of 50,000 kilos., and is quoted at so much per 1,000 kilos. 
Rye flour is quoted per 100 kilos., sack included. The prices 
are quoted in marks. 1,015 kilos, are equal to 2,240 pounds. 

Breslau .—Here grain is sold by the 1,000 kilos., and flour by 
the 100 kilos. In buying on supply, wheat is contracted for in 
lots of 50,000 kilos., payment one day after demand. Rye is 
contracted for in the same way as wheat. Quotations in marks. 

Cape of Good Hope.— Flour is sold at per 100 pounds, and 
wheat by the bushel, or per 200 pounds. 

Dantzic.— Here grain is sold by the ton of 2,000 German 
pounds, or per 1,000 kilos. The zollpfund is the unit of 
weight and is equal to half a kilo, or 500 grammes. One pound 


180 


SALE OF GRAIN, FLOUR, ETC. 


avoirdupois is equal to 0.907 zollpfund, and one zollpfund is 
equal to 1.10233 pounds avoirdupois. Dantzic was the first 
town to adopt the kilo, system. 

Frarikfort-on-the-Main. —Grain is quoted at so many marks 
per 100 kilogrammes. 

Hamburg. —Grain is quoted at so many marks per 1,000 kilo¬ 
grammes ; flour, per 100 kilogrammes. 

Cologne. —Grain quotations, so many marks per 200 German 
pounds. On supply, wheat counts 75 pounds, rye 69 pounds 
per scheffel = 50 litres. Payments generally cash on delivery. 

Egypt .—In Egypt, the measure of capacity is the Ardeb. 

2 Rubba = l Quelch. I 6 Wehbih=l Ardeb. 

2 Quelch =1 Wehbih. | 2 Ardeb =1 Daribba. 

In Alexandria the Ardeb=7.4457 British imperial bushels, or 
271 French litres. In Cairo the Ardeb=4.92461 British im¬ 
perial bushels, or 179 French litres. In Nubia the Ardeb= 
5.00699 British imperial bushels. 

Germany .—Throughout the German Empire grain is sold 
wholesale at per 1,000 kilos., and retail per 100 kilos. 

Greece. —Here the measure for capacity for drygoods are the 
litra and the koilo. 100 Litra=l Koilo=2f imperial bushels. 

India. —At Calcutta all contracts for wheat are made by the 
bazaar maund—2,730 bazaar maunds of 82 pounds each, equal¬ 
ing 100 tons English. 

London. —English wheat is sold by the imperial quarter, and 
foreign by the quarter of 480,496, and 504 pounds, according to 
the country from which it comes. Flour is sold by the 280 
pounds in sacks, and 196 pounds in barrels. 

Liverpool. —Wheat is sold by the 100 pounds ; flour, per 280 
pounds. In 1860 a resolution was adopted to sell all kinds of 
grain and flour by the 100 pounds, which was adhered to only in 
the case of wheat; but a resolution was passed at a large meeting 
held in Liverpool on Tuesday, October 8, 1878, to adopt the 
cental of 100 imperial pounds from the first of January, 1879, 
by which all grain, flour and meal should in future be sold. 

Paris. —Everything is sold by the 100 kilos. 











> • 

► 

> « • . - ; m 































SALE OF GRAIN, FLOUR, ETC. 


181 


Persia .—Here the measure of capacity is the artata ; 8 col- 
lothun=l artata=1.809 imperial bushels. 

Portugal .—The same as in Prance, Italy and Switzerland. 

Pesth. — Wheat was formerly quoted at so many Austrian gul¬ 
den per one hundred pounds, or 50 kilos.; but lately new weights 
and measures have been introduced, similar to those of France. 

Russia .—In the north of Russia all grain is sold per tschet- 
wert (Riga excepted, where the pood is in use). Atschetwert is 
a measure, 100 of which equal 72 imperial quarters. In selling 
wheat per tschetwert, it is understood that 10 poods have to be 
delivered, and of rye, 9 poods net. Barley and oats as they 
measure. In Riga and Black Sea ports, everything is sold per 
pood of 40 Russian pounds. One pood is equal to 36 pounds 
English. 

Spain. — Here the weights and measures are exactly the same 
as those of France. The motro is the metre ; the litro the litre; 
the gramo is the gramme ; the area is the are , and the tonclado 
is 10 metrical quintals of 100 kilos, each. The metric system 
came into operation in 1859. It is also the legal system for all 
the Spanish colonies. 



CHAPTER XVI. 


THE CHICAGO CLEARING HOUSE. 



EW YORK, being the financial center, regularly 
makes three-fourths of the bank clearings of the 
country ; but if it depended on commercial clearings 
alone, it would do no more than double the business 
of Chicago. Boston Clearing House depends largely 
on that city being the headquarters for many great 
railroads and insurance corporations, whose actual 
business is transacted in the Middle and Western 
States. New York’s clearings far excel those of 
London, whilst those of Chicago are nearly as large, 
and three times greater than those of Paris. The 
Chicago Clearing House was established in 1865 with 
a dozen banks as members. Now there are twenty 
banks, and many others effect their clearings through those 
that are members. The capital represented by those twenty 
banks is $17,000,000 ; their deposits, $87,000,000. In the first 
year of its existence the Chicago Clearing House settled $450- 
000,000 of exchange, or $1,500,000 per day; in 1873 $1,000,000- 
000 was reached; and in 1883, $2,517,371,481. 


MODE OF WORKING. 

In Chicago, twenty banks or more have settlements each day 
to make with each other, in consequence of having each had 
paid into them the checks of the other banks. Instead then of 
each individual bank sending to all the others with their checks, 
in order to collect the money, each bank sends two men (gener¬ 
ally very young men) to the Clearing House. 

182 




















THE CHICAGO CLEARING HOUSE. 


183 


A few minutes before eleven o’clock a.m. forty young men 
arrive at the long room, in which business is transacted. Twenty 
of these carry each a satchel, in which are nineteen bundles of 
checks, one for each bank. On the back of each bundle is 
indorsed the amount of its contents. As the messenger, or 
delivery clerk, carrying the satchel enters the room, he gives to 
the manager of the Clearing House a blank, on which is written 
the gross value of the checks which he carries. 

At eleven o’clock precisely the manager taps a bell, and the 
young men arrange themselves in their allotted positions, on 
either side of the counter which runs up the center of the room. 
The messengers with the satchels of checks are ranged on one 
side, and a clerk representing each bank on the other. The 
arrangement is such that the messengers, passing along their 
side of the counter at intervals regulated by the ringing of the 
manager’s bell, hand over the bundles of each bank as they come 
opposite its clerk, and receive in return a check for the amount. 
It is all accomplished in fifteen minutes; in that time twenty 
banks have delivered checks to nineteen other banks, and also 
taken in each case a receipt for the same. The messengers then 
have finished their part of the work, and disappear; the clerks 
then busy themselves with the amounts delivered to them, which 
they set down on a blank; the manager at the same time is 
working with the totals, and these two, the clerk’s termination 
and the manager’s, should agree, and generally do. 

After their deliveries have been made the banks still do not 
deal with each other, but with the Clearing House. It will be 
observed that if, say, the First National puts in $1,000,000 in 
checks, and carries away only $500,000 of its own paper, there 
obviously is a balance due it of $500,000; or on the other hand, 
if it were to pay in $500,000, and carry off $800,000, then it 
would owe a balance of $300,000. Instead, therefore, of having 
a balance with each member, each bank has a balance with the 
Clearing House. Instead of there being about two hundred or 
more settlements to make, eight or ten banks pay the amount 


184 


THE CHICAGO CLEARING HOUSE. 


they owe to the Clearing House, and it pays over the amount to 
ten or twelve banks. On the settling clerks getting back to 
their respective banks, and reporting to the cashier, if money is 
owed it is quickly got ready, in good money of the realm, and at 
noon conveyed in a satchel, or strong box, to the Clearing House. 
The usual balance is about $1,000,000. These amounts are left, 
a receipt being obtained from the manager. By half past twelve 
o'clock the last messenger has arrived, and paid in his balance. 
Most of the currency is in sealed packages of $5,000 or $10,000. 
The banks guarantee the correctness of the count, but errors are 
rare. Messengers then appear from the creditor banks, and receive 
their quota, and by one o'clock business is over. 

At the New York Clearing House the same system is pursued. 
The hour of making exchanges is precisely half-past ten a. m. ; 
between half-past twelve and half-past one p. M. the debtor 
banks pay to the manager the balances against them in actual 
coin of the United States, legal tender notes, or United States 
Treasury certificates of deposit. At half past one p. m., or as 
soon as the amount can be made up, and proved, the creditor 
banks receive from the manager the balance due to each of them, 
provided all the balances due from the debtor banks have been 
paid. Should any one of the associated banks fail, at the proper 
hour, to pay the balance against it, the amount would have to 
be immediately furnished at the Clearing House by the several 
banks exchanging with the defaulting bank, in proportion to 
their several balances against it, resulting from the exchanges of 
the day ; and the manager is required to make such requisitions 
accordingly, to avoid delay in the general settlement. The 
amounts so furnished the Clearing House, on account of the 
defaulting bank, would, of course, constitute claims on the part 
of the responding banks against it, and it would cease to be a 
member of the association. Errors in the exchanges, and claims 
arising from the return of checks, or deficiencies in specie, or 
legal tenders, are adjusted directly through the banks that are 
parties to them, and not through the Clearing House, which is 


THE CHICAGO CLEARING HOUSE. 


185 


in no way responsible for irregularities or mistakes of this kind. 
All checks, drafts, notes, or other items in the exchanges 
returned as “ not good,” or si missent,” have to be returned the 
same day directly to the bank from which they have been 
received, and the latter must immediately refund to the bank, 
returning the same, the amount which it had received through 
the Clearing House for such items. Every bank belonging to 
the association is required to furnish a weekly statement of 
its condition to the manager for publication ; showing the aver¬ 
age amount of its loans and discounts; specie; legal tender 
notes ; circulation, and deposits ; and the aggregate of these 
returns form the bank statement every Saturday. 

New members have to pay an admission fee according to their 
respective capitals, ranging from $1,000 for banks whose capital 
does not exceed $500,000, to $7,500 for banks whose capital 
exceeds $5,000,000. A standing committee of five is chosen at 
every annual meeting, which can, in cases of emergency, suspend 
any bank until the pleasure of the association is known. Any 
member can retire on payment of proportion of expenses. 
Expenses are borne pro rata after an annual payment of $200 
each. The Clearing House only retains custody of the funds it 
thus holds for an hour or two, as trustee, and every bank con¬ 
nected with it keeps a current account with it, debiting it with 
all money sent, and crediting it with all returned. 

THE BOARD OF TRADE. 

The Chicago Board of Trade was inaugurated in 1848, and 
on February 8, 1849, it^was organized under the state law. 
From small and apparently insignificant beginnings, it 
has come to be the great central force which controls the 
business of half a continent, and an important factor in 
the commerce of the whole civilized world. It supervises 
the inspection, warehousing, and shipping of grain, in well 
defined and standard grades, and the standards and inspec¬ 
tion of flour, pork, beef, lard, butter, lumber, etc., have 
been perfected. The Board of Trade is also an essential agency 


186 


THE BOARD OF TRADE. 


in the direction of state and national legislation on all commer¬ 
cial questions. The Hon. Thomas Dyer was the first president, 
in 1848. The erection of the present magnificent structure in 
which business is transacted was commenced in 1882, and the 
corner-stone was laid on December 13 of that year. The 
building has a frontage of 173f feet on Jackson street at the 
south end of La Salle street, and extends south 225 feet. The 
rear portion is occupied by offices, and is 160 feet high, and the 
front, containing the exchange hall, is 140 feet, surmounted by 
a tower 310 feet in height from the ground, the tallest in the 
city. The building is of Fox Island granite, and its cost was 
$1,730,000. The new temple of commerce, undoubtedly the 
most splendid and costly in the world, was formally dedicated 
April 26, 1886. 

Some faint idea of the vast extent of the business transacted 
may be formed from the consideration of one or two items, 
important ones indeed, which enter into the daily transactions 
of the Board of Trade. In 1884 the receipts of wheat were 
26,397,587 bushels, and the same year the crop of oats was 528,- 
628,000 bushels. At the stock yards there is a daily killing 
capacity of 75,000 hogs; in 1885 there were packed 5,002,063 
hogs. In the slaughtering business there is invested $12,000,000; 
the number of hands employed varies from 12,000 to 15,000; and 
the yearly wages amount to $3,500,000. 

Most, if not all, the expressions used in transacting business 
are “ Greek ” to the public, and some explanation may prove 
interesting to readers. 

A lull is one who operates to depress the value of stocks that 
he may buy for a rise. 

A hear is one who sells stock for future delivery, which he 
does not own at the time of the sale. 

A corner is when the Bears cannot buy or borrow the stock to 
deliver in fulfillment of their contracts. 

Overloaded is when the Bulls cannot take and pay for the 
stock they have purchased. 


THE BOARD OF TRADE. 


187 


Short is when a person or party sells stocks when they have 
none, and expect to buy or borrow in time to deliver. 

Long is when a party or person has a plentiful supply of 
stocks. 

A pool or ring is a combination formed to control the price 
of stocks. 

A broker is said to carry stocks for his customer when he has 
bought, and is holding it, for his account. 

A wash is a pretended sale by special agreement between 
buyer and seller, for the purpose of getting a quotation reported. 

A put and call is wheh a person gives so much per cent for 
the option of buying or selling so much stock on a certain fixed 
day, at a price fixed the day the option is given. 

To enlarge a little: “A privilege ” is a contract by which 
the maker of it engages to purchase from the holder in the one 
case, or to sell to the holder in the other case, a number of shares 
of some specified stock, at a certain price, at any time within a 
certain period, at the option of the holder. 

“A call ” is a privilege bought of the maker at a certain 
price, and the owner of it is privileged to call for a certain 
amount of stock at a given price within thirty, sixty or ninety 
days, or four to six months. If a man holds a put he has 
a right to deliver to the maker of the privilege a stock at a certain 
agreed price within a certain number of days. For instance, 
suppose Western Union is selling at 70. A man wants a sixty- 
day put on it at 66, because he believes the stock is going down. 
He gives 1 per cent on the amount of stock he wants to deal in. 
A hundred shares is usual, and 1 per cent is $100. He receives 
in return a slip of paper signed. Then if Western Union goes 
below 66, within sixty days, he may buy it for whatever it is 
selling for below that price, and “put” it to the maker of the 
privilege at the price agreed on—66—and receive a check for 
$6,600; the holder makes the difference. If Western Union 


185 


THE BOAK© OF TEADE. 


does not go below 66 the holder of the written slip or “ put” is 
out his $100. 

The (7a?/business operates in exactly the other way. You buy 
the privilege of calling Western Union at 75 when it is selling at 
70. If it sells above 75 you can call on the maker of the privi¬ 
lege for a hundred shares at 75, and the hundred shares are thus 
bought by the holder for $7,500, and he turns around and sells it 
at 80, if the stock is selling at that price, and pockets the differ¬ 
ence. 

A straddle is a put and call combined. The holder of 
one may “ put ” stock to the maker of the privilege, or “ call ” 
for it. That class of privilege comes high, because there is 
money in it whichever way the market goes. If the market does 
not go at all, but stands still, the maker is in the money he has 
paid for the privilege, usually about 3 per cent. 

A spread is also a put and a call combined, but there is this 
difference: A “straddle” is made at the market—that is to 
say, the maker of the privilege takes the risk that the stock in 
question does not move to any extent from the price at which it 
is selling when the privilege is sold. In a “spread” the maker 
has more leeway. If Western Union is selling at 70, the maker 
of the privilege sells a “spread” say at 67 and 80. If it goes 
below 67, the holder of the privilege can put the stock to the 
maker, and corral the difference, and if it goes above 80 the 
holder of the privilege can call the stock from the maker at 
that price and reap the profits. But so long as the price of the 
stock keeps within those points the maker of the privilege is 
safe. To put it in another way: the holder of a straddle will 
make if the market for the stock he is dealing in moves at all; 
whereas, the holder of a spread doesn't make anything until the 
market moves past certain limits. Privileges are now sold in 
cotton-seed oil certificates, petroleum certificates, wheat, cotton, 
eggs, butter and coffee, as well as stocks, and several years ago, 
when the crop of fire-works for Fourth of July looked a little 
bit in doubt, owing to troubles between foreign and domestic 


THE BOARD OF TRADE. 


189 


manufacturers, privileges on rockets and cargoes of fire-crackers 
and pin-wheels were hawked about Maiden Lane, New York, 
the headquarters for pyrotechnic dealers. At the close of 1885 
the membership of the Chicago Board of Trade was 1,925. A 
Clearing House worked on the same principles as that of the 
banks was established in 1883, and is in successful operation. 



CHAPTER XVII. 


POPULAR CHEMISTRY. 



HE material world immediately under our observa¬ 
tion, including such parts of the earth's crust as 
have been explored, the plants and animals upon its 
surface, and the atmosphere which envelops it, is 
found to consist of 62 simple substances, just as all 
the words which compose a language are resolvable 
into a few letters. These substances, having hitherto 
resisted all endeavors to divide or resolve them into any 
others, are termed the elements of mattery or simple 
bodies . But all that is meant here is that at present 
there are upwards of 60 substances defying analysis, 
not that that number may not ultimately be reduced. 
The investigation of the laws under which these various element¬ 
ary bodies have formed the numerous compound substances 
which we meet with in nature, and the means by which com¬ 
pound substances can be resolved into their simple elements, or 
simple elements thrown into new combinations, are the objects 
of the science of chemistry. There is no science so immediately 
conducive to human comfort. To whatever art or manufacture 
we turn our attention we find that it has either been created by 
chemistry, or owes to it some of its greatest improvements. 


CHEMICAL ATTRACTION. 

When particles of different kinds of matter are brought into 
contact, they frequently unite and form new substances, differ¬ 
ing widely in many instances from those by whose union they have 
been formed. This is called chemical attraction, or chemical 
affinity, because it is said that the particles of certain bodies, hav- 

190 













POPULAR CHEMISTRY. 


191 


ing an affinity for each other, will unite, while others having no 
affinity do not enter into union. If a piece of marble be thrown 
into vitriol or sulphuric acid their particles will unite with 
great rapidity and commotion, and there will result a compound 
differing in all respects from the marble or the acid. This is as 
at once an instance of affinity between two substances and an 
exhibition of stronger and weaker affinity. The commotion or 
effervescence in the experiment arises from the disengagement 
of a gaseous acid (carbonic) in combination with the basis of the 
marble, in consequence of the sulphuric acid having a stronger 
affinity for it. When a piece of caustic magnesia is thrown into 
vitriol we have a case of simple affinity, with a complete change 
also of properties. All their elements combine, without any 
disengagement, and the result is the production of Epsom salts, 
a compound with properties entirely new. Neither ingredient 
has been destroyed; they can again be extracted pure from the 
compound; but they have changed their characters through the 
force of affinity. But if a piece of quartz or gold be thrown in¬ 
to the acid, no change is produced in either, because the parti¬ 
cles of the respective substances have no affinity for each other. 

This process of affinity is termed in chemical language com¬ 
bination, and is quite distinct from aggregation, which is the 
union of particles of a similar kind, forming a mass which has 
the general properties of the particles of which it is composed, 
whatever may be its structure or form. It is also to be distin¬ 
guished from mechanical mixture , in which the particles, although 
they may be intimately blended, are not amalgamated with each 
other so as to lose their individual properties. The difference 
between chemical combination and mechanical mixture will be 
clearly seen from the following example: If into a crystal 
bottle we pour a portion of oil and a quantity of water, and 
shake them well, the two substances can never be made to unite 
permanently, although they appear to do so for a short while 
after the experiment is made ; yet if the vessel be allowed to 
stand for a sufficient length of time, the particles of water, 


192 


POPULAR CHEMISTRY. 


being heavier than those of the oil will descend to the bottom, 
while those of the oil will rise to the top. There has been a 
mechanical mixture without any chemical combination. But if 
with the water we add some potash, the particles of the three 
bodies will immediately unite with each other, and a compound 
will be formed having properties entirely different from either 
the oil or the potash. The compound substance thus obtained 
is soap. 

It sometimes happens that two bodies will readily combine 
with each other, but if a third body be added, the combination 
will be destroyed. Thus, if magnesia be dissolved in nitric acid, 
a complete union takes place; but if lime be added to the com¬ 
pound, the nitric acid unites with the lime in preference, and 
the magnesia, which was formerly dissolved, falls or is precipi¬ 
tated to the bottom of the vessel. Again, if a piece of aqueous 
sulphate of copper (common blue vitriol) be suspended by a 
thread m a glassful of water, the crystals shortly disappear and 
the whole fluid becomes tinged with blue. Here the solid is 
said to be dissolved —that is the cohesion of the particles is 
destroyed, and the compound is called a solution of the solid. 
Such a solution differs entirely from a chemical union, and is 
merely a very perfect mechanical mixture — the same as if we 
dissolved sugar or salt in water. The restoration of cohesion to 
a body after it has been deprived of it, is exhibited in a great 
variety of instances. For example, if a quantity of sugar be 
dissolved in water and the solution be allowed to stand till the 
water has evaporated, the attraction of cohesion will take place 
between the particles of sugar, which will again resume the solid 
form. Here, however, a remarkable circumstance occurs; 
whatever the state of the sugar may have been originally, it 
invariably, in resuming its solidity, assumes a particular form, 
one of great regularity and beauty. It was formerly opaque ; i: 
is now transparent; originally a shapeless mass, it is now a 
prism of six sides, surpassing in luster and symmetry the pro¬ 
ducts of the lapidary's wheel. This solid spontaneous produc- 


COMBINATION AND DECOMPOSITION. 193 

tion is called a crystal; the process by which it is produced, 
crystallization ; and the science, the object of which is to study 
the forms of crystals, crystallography . 

Bodies, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, are susceptible of 
assuming the crystalline form, and the substances which do so 
are numberless. Instances of crystallization, such as sea salt, 
epsom salts, saltpeter, are familiar to every one. Water, it is 
well known, when cooled to a certain degree, assumes the form 
of ice, which is crystalline. There are three methods of pro¬ 
ducing artificial crystals : first, by dissolving the substance in a 
hot liquid, and either allowing the solution to cool, or evapo¬ 
rating it by continued heat; second, by making the substance 
assume the aerial form ; and third, by melting it by fire without 
the presence of a liquid, and allowing it to cool slowly. The 
presence of the atmosphere has a considerable influence on the 
formation of crystals. 

LAWS OF COMBINATION AND DECOMPOSITION. 

Not only the active properties of bodies are changed by com¬ 
bination in chemical attraction, but their density, temperature, 
form, color, taste, smell, and sonorousness are generally affected. 
Chemical attraction can take place between two, three, or even 
a greater number of bodies. The force of chemical affinity 
between the constituents of a body is estimated by that which is 
requisite for their separation. It has been already remarked that 
the degree of attraction varies very considerably in different 
bodies; and it is evident that from this variation all chemical com¬ 
positions and decompositions take place. The preference for 
uniting with another substance which any given body is found 
to exercise, is metaphorically termed elective attraction or affinity. 
It is of two kinds, each of which derives its name from the 
number and the powers of the principles which may be brought 
into contact with each other. 

When a simple substance is presented to a compound one, 
and unites with one of the constituents of the latter., so as to 


13 


194 


ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 


separate it from that with which it has been combined, and by 
this means produce a decomposition, it is said to be effected by 
single elective affinity. Some substances, however, will not be 
thus easily decomposed; and it is found necessary to introduce 
two or more principles in order to effect the end in view. When 
two principles, therefore, are presented to a compound body, 
and when the principles unite each with one of those of the 
compound substance, two new substances are formed; and all 
instances of decomposition in this manner are said to be effected 
by double elective affinity. It is to be observed that all changes 
effected in this manner are permanent, and that the new com¬ 
pound thus formed cannot be decomposed, until a substance 
having a more powerful attraction for one of its constituents 
than they have for each other, is brought into contact with 
them. 

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 

Vitality enables plants and animals to absorb and assimi¬ 
late food, consisting of the elements necessary for their increase, 
and also to reproduce beings of their own kind by means of 
certain organs ; hence they are said to be organized, and the 
substances of which they are composed are known by the 
general name of organic matter. Earths, minerals, metals and 
the like, not possessing vitality have no organs and consist of 
inorganic matter. Organic chemistry is, therefore, that depart¬ 
ment of science which treats of the composition, properties 
and uses, as well as of the origin of all substances produced in 
the animal and vegetable kingdoms and of the artificial com¬ 
pounds arising from their decomposition. The chemist finds, 
however, so far as the ultimate analysis of organic substances 
can show, that plants and animals are composed of the same 
elements as inorganic matter ; and that the two branches of the 
science are not essential, so far as the nature of these elements 
is concerned. There is this peculiarity, however, that a certain 
class of organic compounds possess the property of uniting 
with the elements, and of forming with them new combina- 


ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 


195 


tions, which are analogous in their properties to the combina¬ 
tions of two simple bodies. 

Until the early part of the present century organic chemistry 
was defined as the study of those bodies derived from the work¬ 
ing of animal or vegetable life, together with their numerous 
compounds and derivatives It was assumed that for the conver¬ 
sion of mineral substances into organic bodies there was 
requisite a peculiar force only existing in living organisms, and 
essentially different from that which regulated the apparently 
simpler laws of mineral chemistry. The enormous development 
of organic chemistry has, however, gradually obliterated this 
line of distinction between organic and mineral bodies. The 
number of organic bodies built up from their elements, or from 
their simplest mineral combinations, is on the increase, and the 
results in the region of artificial synthesis approximate nearer 
and nearer to the highest stages of chemical complication—the 
immediate agents of organic life—the cellular constituents of 
plants and animal life. 

The laws which govern organic synthesis have shown them¬ 
selves to be in no way different from those concerned in the 
changes and combinations of mineral substances. The best 
arbitrary definition of organic chemistry is one depending on 
the fact that all organic bodies contain carbon as the essential 
constituent, for it is to the chemical characteristics of carbon 
alone that the compounds termed organic, compared with 
mineral compounds, owe their peculiar character. Naturally 
occurring organic bodies contain but a limited number of ele¬ 
ments in combination with carbon, many only hydrogen and 
oxygen ; many more contain both hydrogen and oxygen, and 
others again these in addition to nitrogen, sulphur and metals. 

VEGETABLE COMPOUNDS. 

Notwithstanding the infinite diversity of form which vege¬ 
table substances assume, it has been proved that they are all 
mainly composed of the same elements, and these are only four 
in number : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen. These, 


196 


VEGETABLE COMPOUNDS. 


again, by uniting themselves, form many of the compounds 
which constitute the vegetable structure; and these compounds 
being the more immediate objects of sense in the investigation 
of any organization, are called their 'proximate principles. 
Existing ready formed in roots, wood, barks, leaves, fruit, 
and seeds, we find a considerable number of proximate princi¬ 
ples, in the form of acids, alkalies, sweet principles, bitter 
principles, oils, exudations ; some poisonous, others wholesome ; 
some spontaneously separating, others remaining obstinately 
combined. 

Common citric acid exists in the juice of lemons, and 
when crystallized, 100 grains consist of : water 23f, and pure 
acid 76J, which is a compound of 42.1 oxygen, 31f carbon, 
and 2.63 hydrogen. Malic acid is the sour principle of 
apples and other fruits. It consists of the same ingredients 
as the former. Tartaric acid is the sour principle of grapes; 
a large quantity of which being left to ferment produces wine. 
On the side of the vessel containing this liquor, crystals of the 
acid, combined with potash, are formed, and these, when puri¬ 
fied, form cream of tartar . Twelve parts in the 100 are water ; 
and the remaining 88 consist of oxygen 52.87, carbon 32.39, and 
hydrogen 2.64 parts. Oxalic acid. —The plant called sorrel is 
valued for its acidulous taste, which is due to the presence of 
this acid. It has no hydrogen in its composition, consisting 
merely of oxygen and carbon. It is an active poison, and from 
resembling Epsom salts in appearance, many persons have fallen 
victims to its virulence. The antidote is powdered chalk. 
Gallic acid is obtained from nut-galls. Its most remarkable 
property is that of changing the color of solutions containing 
iron to an intense blue-black color, as in the case of common 
writing ink. One hundred grains consist of 56.25 carbon, 
37.5 oxygen and 6.25 hydrogen. 

Prussic , or hydrocyanic acid , found in various fruits and 
flowers, is a most virulent poison ; it is formed of hydrogen and 
cyanogen, a noxious inflammable gas. Such acids as these just 


VEGETABLE COMPOUNDS. 


197 


described exist ready formed in fruits, etc.; they are simple 
educts. There are others formed by chemical changes produced 
by certain elements contained in vegetables, which afford the 
base of the acid ; these are acid products; some are produced by 
the agency of heat, others by the action of nitric acid. Acetic 
acid, or vinegar, is one of these, being a product of any liquid 
capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. Fermentation 
produces alcohol, and alcohol, by oxidation, is converted into 
acetic acid. Several acids, when distilled at a high temperature, 
undergo decomposition, and new acids are formed ; their names 
remain the same, or have the word pyro (from the Greek pyr, 
fire) prefixed, as pyro-citric acid. 

It has also been ascertained that alkalies, as well as acids, 
exist ready formed in plants as one of their constituent prin¬ 
ciples. Alkalies may be defined as bodies which combine with 
acids, so as to impair or neutralize their activity, and produce 
what are called salts. They are distinguished by properties the 
reverse of acids, and the two classes are generally looked upon as 
antagonistic substances. Plants which evince alkaline proper¬ 
ties of a weak character are called alkaloids. The alkalies are 
quina and cinchona, which resemble each other, and have a 
bitter taste ; morphia, which is obtained from opium, and is a 
white crystalline powder ; strychnia , one of the most powerful 
bitters and poisons, which is much used in medicine and as a 
poison ; hrucia, also a violent poison; digitalia which is pro¬ 
cured from the leaves of the foxglove ; hyoscyamia, atropia, 
veratria, emetina, etc,, which are derived from henbane, deadly 
nightshade, etc. 

Of the other proximate principles, the first deserving of notice 
is the woody fiber which constitutes the solid basis of all vege¬ 
table structures. It is called lignin (from lignum, wood); and 
consists of 52 carbon, and 48 of oxygen and hydrogen in the 
ratio which forms water. With lignin are associated various 
other bodies, such as resins , which are various and abundant. 
In the different species of pine we discover that peculiar liquid 


198 


VEGETABLE COMPOUNDS. 


resin called turpentine. From resins are obtained what are 
called essential oils ; because after the resin has been heated in a 
distilling apparatus, an odoriferous oil distils over and leaves the 
resin hard, dark, and odorless. The essence of the substance is 
supposed to have passed away in the aeriform state — hence the 
name. From its speedily evaporating on being exposed to air it 
is called volatile oil . The seeds of plants yield another oil, 
which, not evaporating, is called fixed oil. Gum , for instance 
gum-arabic, has the following properties : it is transparent, 
tasteless, perfectly soluble in water, viscid in solution, capable 
of cementing fragments, and of affording a varnish ; and totally 
insoluble in spirit of wine. There is a class of bodies called 
gum-resins , whose properties are intermedia 4 -i between those of 
gum and resin, and somewhat allied to resins, although essen¬ 
tially different in most of their properties ; these are caoutchouc 
and gutta-percha. They are the exuded juices of peculiar trees, 
and are composed of carbon and hydrogen. 

From wheaten flour a substance is obtained called gluten, 
from its glutinous nature. A substance named vegetable albumen 
seems to be the basis of all emulsive grains in place of starch, 
and greatly resembles it. Starch is a fine white sediment, ca¬ 
pable of being extracted from the white and brittle parts of vege¬ 
tables, particularly the tuberous roots, and the seeds of the 
gramineous plants. One of the most remarkable properties of 
starch, or, as it is called, fecula, is that of being convertible into 
sugar by tha action of diluted sulphuric acid. Sugar is derived 
from many sources — from sugar cane, maple tree, beet-root, 
grapes. Nothing is easier than its formation from grapes: 
grape juice is to be saturated with chalk, clarified with the white 
of eggs, or blood, and evaporated; after a few days it assumes 
the form of a crystalline mass. Tannin. —From the oak-bark, or 
nut-galls, a peculiar substance is obtained, called tannin, — bo 
named from being the material employed in tanning leather. It 
is inodorous, colorless, and possesses a rough, astringent, bitter 
taste. 


ANIMAL COMPOUNDS. 


199 


ANIMAL COMPOUNDS. 

The chief substances which enter into the composition of 
animal matter are, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, phos¬ 
phorus, and lime. We also find certain acids and metals, but 
in quantity so minute as not to affect the general truth of the 
statement. Bone consists chiefly of phosphate and carbonate of 
lime and gelatine. The last is the coagulating, or rather elastic, 
principle in all animal jellies. When bones are burned in a close 
vessel they form ivory black. Fibrin is obtained from the 
animal tissue, and when recently obtained is elastic ; when per¬ 
fectly dry, it is somewhat horny and transparent. The tendons, 
ligaments , and membranes are nearly allied to gelatine in their 
nature. Fatty substances, as lard and oils, are formed chiefly of 
carbon, with a little hydrogen and oxygen — one or both. 
Albumen is a substance very abundant in animal matter. It 
occurs nearly pure in the white of eggs. Of this substance in 
the coagulated state, along with gelatine, are horns, nails and 
hoofs. 

Of the fluids of the animal body, blood, one of the most 
important, is viscid, of a red color, exhaling a vapor of a peculiar 
odor. When left at rest a few hours, its appearance is very 
much altered, having separated into two parts — one quite liquid, 
of a whey-like color, and called serum; the other an elastic, firm 
jelly, of a crimson-red color and a thick consistency, resembling 
a deposit, which is called the clot. If this clot be repeatedly 
washed with cold water, it parts with its red color to the water, 
becomes white, and a fibrous matter remains, which, when sub¬ 
jected to analysis, proves to be fibrin. Serum coagulates when 
heated to about 160°, nearly in the same manner as the white of 
an egg, but the color is not pure white. If the serum thus 
coagulated be cut in slices, a fluid will exude, which is called the 
serosity of the blood ; it consists chiefly of water, holding a little 
altered albumen, and a little common salt, in solution. Serum 
is composed of water, albumen, soda, and some salts of soda. 
Clot is composed of fibrin, albumen, red coloring matter, a little 


200 


ANIMAL COMPOUNDS. 


iron and carbonic acid. During the conversion of arterial blood 
into venous blood, nitrogen, hydrogen, and other elements are 
spent in the formation of new products, while the proximate 
principles of the blood remain with an increased proportion of 
carbon. In this state it is exposed to the atniospheric air in the 
lungs, the oxygen of which abstracts its excess of carbon, and 
forms the carbonic acid breathed out; and this process consti¬ 
tutes the conversion of arterial into venous blood. 



CHAPTEK XVIII. 


POPULAR CHEMISTRY. 

( Continued.) 



CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO THE ARTS. 

jHEMISTRY is now indispensable to the proper con¬ 
ducting of almost every useful art. Agriculture, 
which may be considered the most important of all 
the arts, is radically dependent on chemistry; for 
without a knowledge of that science the husband¬ 
man remains ignorant of the constitution of his soil 
and crops, the action of the atmosphere and the sun's 
light, and the properties of those materials which are 
required to enrich his exhausted fields. Baking, 
brewing, distilling, and indeed all the operations by 
which food is prepared from the condition in which 
it is furnished by nature, are in general a series of 
chemical processes. So likewise is the manufacture of pottery- 
ware, porcelain, glass, paper, etc.; the operations of bleaching, 
dyeing and calico-printing; the preparation of soap, gunpowder, 
ink, salt, drugs, paints, perfumery. The applications of chem¬ 
istry to the arts extend to the whole circle of manufacturing 
industry. Chemical manufactures , in contradistinction to me¬ 
chanical are those which involve an elementary change in sub¬ 
stances, as in the manufacture of sand, potash and lime into 
glass; of common salt into soda; iron ore into metallic iron ; 
hides into leather; and charcoal, sulphur and saltpeter into gun¬ 
powder, are chiefly chemical processes ; while the conversion of 
flax into cloth, and clay into pottery, are principally mechanical, 
though in both there is a necessary blending of chemical with 

mechanical appliances 

■ 201 









202 


ALCOHOL. 


Acetic acid, or the sour principle in vinegar, is obtained 
either by the slow combustion of a liquid containing alcohol, as 
in the case of malt vinegar or wine-vinegar, or by the destruc¬ 
tive distillation of wood. 


ALCOHOL. 

The spirituous or intoxicating principle in fermented liquors, 
is called by the chemist alcohol. The variety best known in this 
country is that derived from grain, in the preparation of which 
four distinct processes are successively followed, namely : mash¬ 
ing, which simply means extraction of the sugar by means of 
heat and water; cooling , which has to be done as rapidly as 
possible ; fermentation ; which consists of putting in yeast or any 
other ferment by which the sugar is again changed into carbonic 
acid and alcohol. When this takes place it is ready for the last 
process: distillation, by which it is purified and made marketa¬ 
ble. The following is the percentage of 


ALCOHOL IN VARIOUS LIQUORS. 


Scotch Whiskey. 

.54.53 

Currant Wine. 

.20.50 

Irish Whiskey. 

.53.9 

Port. 

.22.90 

Rum.. 


Madeira. 


Gin. 

.51.6 

Teneriffe. 


Brandy. 


Sherry... 


Burgundy. 

.14.57 

Claret. 


Cape Muscat. 

.18.25 

Elder. 

. 8 79 

Champagne [still]. 

.13.80 

Ale. 


Champagne [sparkling]. 

.12.61 

Porter. 

4 2 

Cider.. 

.5.2 to 9.8 

Malaga. 


Constantia. 

.19.75 

Rhenish. 


Gooseberry Wine. 

.11.48 

Small Beer. 



BLEACHING. 

Bleaching is the art by which various articles may be deprived 
of the colors which they naturally possess, and so rendered white. 
This used to be done by the action of the atmosphere and sun's 
light, now it is done by bleaching powder. 

Calico-printing consists in impressing the representation of 


























GUNPOWDER AND GUN-COTTON. 


203 


certain figures or designs upon cloth; these are done now 
mostly by chemical combinations. 

Colors. There are, as is well known, two modes of impart¬ 
ing colors, dyeing and painting ; the former term being applied 
to articles colored by a liquid infusion, the latter to the laying 
of a coloring substance on the substance to be dyed. We dye 
cloth and paint a house. 

Dyeing. A remarkable circumstance connected with dyeing 
is the different degrees of facility with which animal and vege¬ 
table substances imbibe the coloring matter applied to them. 
Tissues of silk and wool receive more brilliant colors than those 
of cotton and linen, the reason why has never been discovered. 

Ether is very closely connected with alcohol. Both contain 
a compound substance called ethyle. It is a colorless and trans¬ 
parent liquid, very inflammable, and of the very highest impor¬ 
tance to the photographer as it furnishes him with a liquid 
which, in conjunction with alcohol, affords a ready means of dis¬ 
solving gun-cotton and yielding collodion, so remarkable for the 
rapidity and accuracy with which it admits of sun portraits being 
taken. It is often used as an anaesthetic agent. 

GUNPOWDER AND GUN-COTTON. 

The Chinese seem to have employed a coarse variety for fire¬ 
works at least 200 years B.c. From there it found its way to the 
Arabs, and they in turn communicated the discovery to the 
Greeks. It is possible that it may have formed the principal 
ingredient in the Greek fire. The substances employed in its 
manufacture are niter, charcoal and sulphur. 

Gun-cotton, like gunpowder, contains everything within itself 
requisite to its complete combustion; indeed in the elementary 
composition of both there is little or no difference. The advan¬ 
tages which it possesses over gunpowder are lightness of weight. 
It leaves no residue ; when it becomes wet or moist it can be 
dried again; no smoke results from its combustion. 

LEATHER-MAKING 

is the art by which the skins of animals are rendered impervious 


204 


SOAP — FICTILE MANUFACTURES. 


to the action of those external agents which would otherwise 
decompose them. The most common way of effecting this is 
brought about by steeping the skins in tannin or tannic acid, 
when a chemical combination of the skin and tannin ensues, 
which is leather. Tannin is obtained from bark of trees and 
also from the gall-nuts of the Levant oak. Very heavy leather 
takes from twelve to eighteen months before it is ready for use, 
but the lighter makes only take from five to eight months. 

SOAP., 

This exceedingly useful article, of which the ancients 
were entirely ignorant, is a compound of certain ingredients in 
oils, fats or resin, with a salifiable base. Common hard white 
soap is made from soda and tallow, for finer makes, 50 per cent 
or more of lard is added, which gives the soap a fine, “ smooth 
skin.” Cocoanut oil is also added occasionally to the extent of 
ten per cent. Yellow or resin soap is similarly prepared from 
tallow, resin and soda. Mottled or marled soap is resin soap 
which has not been permitted to deposit all its impurities. 
Toilet soaps are a fine preparation of white soap with oil and 
perfumes. Castile soap is prepared from olive oil and alkaline 
lye. 

FICTILE MANUFACTURES. 

We employ the term fictile to comprehend all those arts 
which, like that of the potter, involve the molding or fashion¬ 
ing of crude materials into determinate forms. Thus with some 
degree of latitude, earthenware, porcelain, glass, bricks, tiles, 
mosaic tesserae, ce* nts, artificial gems and the like, may be 
designated fictile fabrics , in contradistinction to those of woolen, 
silk, cotton and other vegetable and animal fiber, which are 
strictly textile. The subjects thus embraced are numerous and 
important; of scientific importance, as involving at every step 
the deductions of chemistry and the principles of taste; and 
economically so, as elaborating from the crude and apparently 
worthless materials of the soil an almost infinite variety of 


EARTHENWARB. 


205 


articles of utility and elegance. Our limited space precludes the 
idea of a minute account, and restricts us merely to the leading 
features of the manufactures in question. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF EARTHENWARE. 

Earthenware .—That is, mere sun-dried or fire-dried vessels of 
clay—seems to have been one of the earliest of human arts; but 
pottery with a painted glaze was unknown till about the ninth 
century, when it was first attempted by the Arabs in Spain. 
Vast improvements have taken place in this art since the middle 
of last century through the advance of chemical and mechanical 
knowledge and appliances. 

Stoneivare is intermediate between earthenware and porcelain 
and may be described as a coarse kind of porcelain, made from 
sandy clay, containing oxide of iron and a little lime, to which it 
owes its fusibility. The glazing is performed by throwing common 
salt into the heated surface, this is volatilized, and decomposed 
by the joint action of the silica of the ware, and of the vapor of 
water always present; hydro-chloric acid and soda are produced, 
the latter forming a silicate which fuses over the surface of the 
ware and gives a thin but excellent glaze. 

PORCELAIN OR CHINA. 

This is a fine grained, compact, very hard, faintly translucent 
ware, of which there are two kinds—one called hard, and the 
other tender or soft. Hard porcelain is composed of a clay con¬ 
taining silica, which is infusible, and preserves its whiteness in 
a strong heat, and of a flux containing silica and lime. The glaze 
of this ware is earthy, and admits of no metallic substance or 
alkali. Tender , or soft porcelain consists of kaolin, Cornish 
stone and bones. It is glazed with artificial glass, into the com¬ 
position of which silica, alkalies and lead enter. Kaolin-clay is 
the largest ingredient in porcelain ware. It is composed of 
alumina and silica. In painting on porcelain, the same coloring 
materials are used as those employed in coloring glass or earthen¬ 
ware. In all the more delicate patterns they are laid on with a 


206 


BRICKS, TILES, DRAIK-TUBES. 


camel-hair brush, and generally, previously mixed with a little 
oil of turpentine. This art of painting on porcelain, or in 
enamel is of the most delicate description; much experience and 
skill are required in it, and with every care there are frequent 
failures; hence it is attended with considerable expense. The 
gilding of porcelain is generally performed by applying finely 
divided gold mixed with gum water and borax; on the applica¬ 
tion of heat the gum burns off, and the borax, vitrifying on the 
surface, causes the gold to adhere; it is afterwards burnished 
with bloodstone, agate, or other polishers. Porcelain vessels are 
very brittle, and are easily damaged, which accounts in some 
degree for the high price at which they are sold. It is calcu¬ 
lated that, after being manufactured, one-third of the articles 
are found damaged, mostly in the kiln. The wares of Sevres, 
Tournay, Dresden, Berlin and Florence are famous. 

BRICKS, TILES, DRAIK-TUBES. 

These formed of tempered clay and artificially hardened by 
heat, may be termed a kind of artificial stone. Bricks have 
been used for building purposes from a very early period in the 
world's history, but the quantity manufactured and used in this 
country at the present day exceeds anything in the past, how¬ 
ever great. Tiles are prepared much in the same way as bricks, 
only from their being thinner and of a more intricate form 
they require to be made of a finer and tougher material. Drain 
tiles ard tubes are always made by machinery. For architectu¬ 
ral decorations, figures, vases, etc., on a large scale, a variety of 
argillaceous compounds are in use, the principal of which is 
known as terra cotta —literally, baked clay. This composition 
consists of pipe or potter's clay, a fine colorless sand, and pulver¬ 
ized potsherds. These are worked into a homogeneous paste, 
which is modelled or cast into the figure required, then slowly 
dried in the air, and finally fired to a strong hardness in a proper 
kiln. Tobacco pipes are made of a finely ground white plastic 
clay. 


TILES—MOSAICS. 


207 


ENCAUSTIC TILES, TESSER2E, MOSAICS. 

The term mosaic is from the Greek viousaiJcon, elegant, or 
polished; and is now applied to the art of imbedding or in¬ 
laying in a cement fragments of different substances so as to 
produce the effect of a picture. This art was practiced at a very 
early period and was introduced into Italy by the Byzantine 
Greeks. Magnificent specimens are to be seen at St. Peter’s at 
Rome, and in the chapel of St. Lawrence at Florence, where 
precious marbles, agates, jaspers, malachites, etc., constitute the 
colored tesserae. 

The ancients applied mosaics chiefly to pavements, for which 
they are admirably adapted. Specimens of highly decorated 
pavements are also frequently met with in the grand ecclesiasti¬ 
cal structures of the middle ages. Such is the beauty and dura¬ 
bility of this species of pavement that the art has been revived. 
Great care is taken in the preparation of the clay, it being re¬ 
peatedly washed and purified and passed through fine sieves. 
The pattern is first carefully modelled in clay, the parts con¬ 
stituting the device being depressed about a quarter of an inch,and 
from this a cast is taken in plaster, and placed in a metal frame; 
when the pattern is of different colors, the clays of different 
color are poured into the indented parts of the pattern, cover¬ 
ing the whole surface of the tile and are allowed to dry. The 
surface is then scraped, so as to expose the pattern, and the tile 
is placed in the drying house for two or three weeks and finally 
subjected to intense heat for sixty hours, which brings out the 
colors with great brilliancy. 

GLASS. 

The first glass manufactory of any note was established 
at the village of Murano, near Venice. The Venetians 
were long celebrated for making mirrors. Window-glass appears 
to have been made in England in the middle of the fifteenth 
century. The first plate-glass for mirrors, coach-windows, and 
the like was fabricated at Lambeth, London, in 1673 by a Vene- 


208 


TEXTILE MANUFACTUBES. 


tian workman brought over to England by the Duke of Buck¬ 
ingham. Crown or window-glass is usually composed of 
alkalies and fine white sand ; the best sand for glass-making is 
that which contains most transparent particles. This is the 
base of glass, but to the alkali and silica (sand) lime and other 
ingredients are applied. Alumina, which is also sometimes 
added and always accidentally present, renders the glass liable 
to devitrification. Iron, also, is present, and as this colors the 
glass, its effects are got rid of by the addition of manganese. 
Arsenic, soda, charcoal and chalk are also employed. All the 
pigments used in painting on or staining glass are oxides of 
metals or minerals, as gold, silver, cobalt, manganese, etc. The 
description of glass best adapted for painting upon or staining, 
is the finest crown or window-glass. 

TEXTILE MANUFACTUBES. 

By textile manufactures as generally defined, are meant 
those on which filaments of flax, of cotton, of silk or of wool, 
are wrought into linen, cambric, calico, muslin, silk, satin, 
flannel, etc., etc. In the preparation of these, from the rearing 
of the raw materials to their ultimate stage as articles of utility 
and luxury, there is involved a vast amount of labor, of mechan¬ 
ical and chemical skill, of capital and enterprise,— so much so, 
that as a class they rank second to none of the manufactures 
which come within the scope of our national industry. 

Linen is the most ancient of the textile manufactures. In 
the oldest records, sacred and profane, mention is made of it. 
The word is derived from the old name of the plant now called 
flax, which is preserved in tin seed. Linen is cloth made of lint, 
which is the fibrous bark of the flax plant. The continent of 
Europe, and especially the Baltic countries, are the chief pro¬ 
ducers of the plant. 

Hemp is the fibrous bark of the Cannabis sativa—-Si plant 
supposed to be native to Persia or India, but which has long 
been naturalized in Europe, particularly in Italy, Russia, and 


TEXTILE MANUFACTURES. 


209 


Poland, and is cultivated to a considerable extent in this country. 
Its fibres are made into yarn for the fabrication of canvas-bag¬ 
ging, sail-cloth, ropes and cordage. 

Cotton.—r- The cotton plant is of the order Malvoceo , its type 
being the common mallow. The genus Gossypium is that which 
produces cotton, comprising according to various authorities 
from five to ten species, all natives of intertropical climates 
and indigenous to America and India. The most useful species 
and the one generally cultivated is the Gossypium herbaceum , a 
herbaceous cotton-plant. It is an annual, the average height 
being twenty inches. As the plants do not ripen uniformly the 
operation of picking has to be repeatedly gone through, warm, 
fine weather being always chosen, never damp. The qualities 
used for manufacturing purposes are various. Its value is reck¬ 
oned by the length, strength and fineness of the staple or fibers. 
The “long stapled,” or valuable cottons, are Sea Island, Brazilian, 
West India, Egyptian; the “short stapled,” or inferior qualities, 
are the Upland cotton of America, the Orleans, Mobile, and 
Surat. England long held supremacy in the manufacture of 
cotton, but in recent years this country has made immense strides 
in this as in all the other textile manufactures. 

Silk , that beautiful and unrivaled material, is the produce of 
a plain-looking, greedy, leaf-devouring larva,—the caterpillar of 
the silk-moth. It is thus directly of animal, although indirectly 
of vegetable, origin. The silk-worm is 'supposed to have been 
indigenous to China. At an early period a considerable commerce 
was established in silk between eastern and western Asia, from 
which latter quarter it was conveyed to Europe. The first silk¬ 
worms seen in Europe were brought from China in the year 552, 
by two Persian monks who had gone thither as Christian mission¬ 
aries, and who contrived to secrete a number of the eggs in a cone, 
and to escape with them to Constantinople. From these few 
eggs have sprung all the successive generations of the insect 
which have supplied silk to Europe from that period to the pres¬ 
ent time. Silk is woven into various fabrics. The fine, soft 
14 


210 


TEXTILE MANUFACTURES. 


pile of velvet is produced during weaving by inserting short 
pieces of thread doubled, under the shoot or web. It has been 
estimated that a million and a half of human beings derive their 
sole support from the culture and manufacture of silk, and that 
it creates an annual circulating medium of between $150,000,000 
and $200,000,000. 

Wool “is a peculiar modification of hair, characterized by fine 
transverse or oblique lines from 2,000 to 4,000 in the extent of 
an inch, indicative of a minutely imbricated scaly surface when 
viewed under the microscope, in which and on its curved or 
twisted form depends its remarkable felting property and its 
consequent value in manufactures.” Wool, although principally 
derived from the sheep in its many varieties, is obtainable also 
from the goat and other animals. The Thibet goat furnishes the 
finest of all wool, and the merino sheep the next best. Wool as 
used in our manufactures is divided into two sorts: the long, or 
combing, and the short, or carding wool. These again give rise 
to the two grand divisions of the trade: the cloth, or the short 
wool, and the worsted, or long wool departments. 


CHAPTER XIX. 


NATURE AND SCIENCE. 



T IS by our senses that we obtain a knowledge of the 
external world. Some philosophers have held that 
there are innate or inborn ideas in the mind; but, 
setting aside all philosophical discussion as out of 
place here, one thing is certain that it is through the 
faculties of hearing, seeing, tasting, touching and 
so on, that we obtain a knowledge of what we cannot 
help believing is all around us. Those feelings 
which we have we call sensations, and the cause of 
them we call things or objects. These sensations being 
appropriated by the mind, or perceived, the reasoning 
faculty is awakened through the perception of the 
difference of things, and by and by a certain rough and ready 
classification is made. Even the rudest savage knows things 
as rough or smooth; light or heavy; black or white; and so on. 
This is the beginning of science. But the mind by its very con¬ 
stitution and nature, continues to work. It goes on distinguish¬ 
ing and classifying, never resting satisfied in any direction until 
a matter is finally settled, and a thing finally placed. Thus a 
distinction comesto be made in regard to the qualities of objects 
which are designated sometimes ‘properties and sometimes 
powers „ 

PROPERTIES AND POWERS. 

The odor of camphor is one of its properties. Lead is said 
to have the property of heaviness. On the other hand steam, 
we say, has the power to make the engine move along; or the 
venomous snake has by its bite the power to kill a man. 

211 













212 


NATURE AND SCIENCE. 


ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL OBJECTS. 

Things shaped or made by the art of man are termed artifi¬ 
cial, whilst objects which would be just what they are if man 
did not exist are called natural, and to the whole of J;hem we 
give the name Nature. Although this distinction is very easily 
made and very convenient, yet in the sense of creating, it is 
necessary to remember that man can make nothing whatever 
except out of what existed before in some shape or form. He 
cannot create. The practice of every art implies a certain 
knowledge of natural causes and effects; and the improvement 
of the arts depends upon our learning more and more of the 
properties and powers of things, and discovering how to turn 
these, and the connections of cause and effect among them, to 
our own advantage. 

Many objects and chains of causes and effects in nature are 
out of our reach. The motions of the heavenly bodies are 
among these, as are hurricanes, earthquakes, storms, volcanic 
eruptions and the like. We can neither prevent nor direct these. 
So long as man is ignorant he is the mere sport of nature. To 
begin with, he is servant and nature is master. Science reverses 
this, and the electric fluid which he thought was the instrument 
of the gods to work his destruction, becomes his messenger. 

THE ORDER OF NATURE. 

Nothing happens by accident, and there is no such thing as 
chance. The order of nature—such as the rising of the sun in 
the east and setting in the west; that water always runs down 
hill; that fire burns; that the seasons follow each other—so far as 
such order prevails it is often felt that things are explained; 
whilst all the rest are many times attributed to chance or happen 
by accident, which is another way of saying we are ignorant and 
are unable to unravel the wonders of nature. 

LAWS OF NATURE — LAWS ARE NOT CAUSES. 

Everything that we know about the powers and properties 
of natural objects and about the order of nature, may property 


LAWS OF MATURE. 


213 


be termed the law of nature. But it is desirable to remember 
that the laws of nature are not the causes of the order of nature, 
but only our way of stating what we have deducted from that 
order. To speak of the violation or the suspension of a law of 
nature is an absurdity. All that the phrase can really mean 
is that we have made a mistake in stating that order. A true 
natural law is a universal rule, and as such admits of no excep¬ 
tions. Knowledge of nature is the guide of practical conduct. 
If nothing happens by chance, but everything in nature follows 
a definite order, and if the laws of nature embody that which 
we have been able to learn about the order of nature, then it 
becomes very important for us to know as many as we can of 
these laws of nature, in order that we may guide our conduct 
by them. Nobody can live for half a day without attending to 
some of the laws of nature; and thousands of us are dying daily 
or living miserably, because men have not yet been sufficiently 
zealous to learn the code of nature. 

“ Forewarned is forearmed,” says the proverb; and knowledge 
of the laws of nature is forewarning of that which we may expect 
to happen when we have to deal with natural objects. Science 
is the knowledge of the laws of nature obtained by observation, 
experiment and reasoning. In strictness all accurate knowledge 
is Science; and all exact reasoning is scientific reasoning. The 
method of observation and experiment by which such great results 
are obtained in science, is identically the same as that which is 
employed by every one, every day of his life, only more fuil, pre¬ 
cise and free from unconscious inference. So also with scien¬ 
tific reasoning, it strives to be accurate; and it is just as hard to 
reason accurately as it is to observe accurately. Thus science 
and common sense are not opposed, as people sometimes fancy 
them to be, but science is perfected common sense. The way 
to science then lies through common knowledge; we must extend 
that knowledge and learn how to reason accurately from these 
rules, and thus arrive at rational explanations of natural phen¬ 
omena, which may suffice for our guidance in life. 



214 


ASTRONOMY. 


FACTS ABOUT ASTRONOMY. 

One is apt to imagine that the moment the sun arises on the 
horizon its light reaches our earth, but that is not so. Light 
requires time to travel as well as we do. The rate at which light 
travels is so exceedingly rapid, that in the comparatively small 
distance between any two objects on our planet no one would 
ever attempt to measure its pace. But the heavenly bodies are 
at such an immense distance from us that a measurement be¬ 
comes possible. And thus astronomers can tell us accurately 
that the speed of light on its journey is 192,000 miles in a sec¬ 
ond ! Now, for example, as the moon is 240,000 miles distant 
from us, it follows that, when its first narrow margin escapes 
from an eclipse, nearly a second and a quarter passes before we 
see it. The sun 95,000,000 of miles distant, or 400 times more 
than the moon, takes about eight minutes to let us know by its 
light that it is there. The distance of the planet Jupiter from 
our earth, at the time when it is greatest, is nearly 617,000,000 
miles. This is six and a half times greater than our distance 
from the sun, and therefore its light requires fifty-two minutes 
to reach us. Lastly Uranus is 1,800,000,000 miles distance from 
this globe, and its light takes more than two hours to reach it. 

Now these are planets; but the nearest fixed star to us, is in 
the constellation of Centaur, and is distant about eighteen bil¬ 
lions of miles. Its light therefore takes about three years to 
reach us. A ray of light requires, before it reaches the earth, 
from a star of the 

First Magnitude - - - 3 to 12 years 

Second “ 20 “ 

Third «... . 30 • “ 

Fourth “ - - - - _45 << 

* * * * 

Seventh “ - - 180 “ 

According to a conjecture first made by the great Herschel, 
the entire system of fixed stars which we behold on any fine night 
in winter, forms a single lens-shaped canopy. We, with our 



SOLAR 


system 


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ASTRONOMY. 


215 


sun, are situated nearly in the middle of a space, and all 
around us, at an immense distance, are situated these stars. We 
may consider the Milky Way as the edge and furthermost limit 
of this set of fixed stars, which form as it were two concaves, 
like two watch-glasses, on either side of us. The farther a 
number of objects are away from us, if we can see them at all, 
the closer they appear together, and that is how those infinitely 
distant crowds of stars appear collected in such masses that their 
light flows together into a whitish cloud. Hence the name of 
the Milky Way . The sun's average distance from the earth 
is 91£ million miles. The light of the sun is equal to 5,563 wax- 
candles held at a distance of one foot from the eye. It would 
require 800,000 full moons to produce a day as brilliant as one 
of cloudless sunshine. The amount of heat we receive annually 
from the sun is sufficient to melt a layer of ice thirty-eight yards in 
thickness, extending over the whole earth. Moreover, the heat 
and light stream off into space equally in all directions; of this 
vast flood only 2,300,000,000th part reaches the earth. It is 
said that if the heat of the sun were produced by the burning of 
coal, it would require a layer ten feet in thickness, extending 
over the whole sun, to feed the flame a single hour. 

The diameter of the sun is about 850,000 miles. Its volume 
is 1,245,000 that of earth; that is to say, it would take 1,245,000 
earths the size of ours to make a globe the size of the sun. Its 
weight may be expressed in tons thus: 1,910,278,070,000,000,- 
000,000,000,000. Such a number is meaningless to our imagi¬ 
nation, but it represents a force of attraction which holds our 
own earth, and all the planets, steadily in their places. 

The planets, of which oi* earth is an insignificant one, move 
in an invariable direction, around the sun. To get at some 
comparative idea of their size, let us fancy ourselves on a level 
field or common; let us take a globe two feet in diameter for 
the sun; then Vulcan will be represented by a small pin's head at 
a distance of about 27 feet from the center of the ideal sun; 
Mercury by a mustard-seed at a distance of 82 feet; Venus by a 


316 


ASTRONOMY. 


pea at a distance of 142 feet; the Earth, also, by a pea at a dis¬ 
tance of 215 feet; Mars by a small pepper-corn, at a distance of 
327 feet; the minor planets by grains of sand at distances varying 
from 500 to 600 feet. We may place a moderate-sized orange 
nearly one-quarter of a mile distant from the central point to 
represent Jupiter; a small orange two-fifths of a mile for Saturn; 
a full-sized cherry three-quarters of a mile distant for Uranus; 
and lastly, a plum one and a quarter miles off for Neptune, the 
most distant planet we know. 

Jupiter is 1,230 times the size of our earth; Saturn is 700 times. 
Mercury circles around the sun in 88 days. It has 1JJ times 
more light and heat than we have. Venus in many respects 
resembles our earth more than any other orb within the solar 
system; its year is 224 days and 17 hours long. It is conjectured 
that Venus is the abode of living creatures probably not unlike 
the inhabitants of the earth. Mars, again, is this globe of ours 
in miniature. Saturn, “ the ringed planet,” is more important 
in the scheme of creation than the globe on which we live. Its 
year is 29£ years long. There is now a strong belief prevalent 
among astronomers that the planets are inhabited. Astronomy 
suggests thoughts of other forms of life than those with which 
we are acquainted. Take Mars, for example, which is distant 
from us 40,000,000 miles; it has seas, continents, rivers, atmos¬ 
phere and all the other conditions of life; it is not so cold in 
winter there, as here, and not so warm in summer. If we can¬ 
not tell what the inhabitants there are like, we at least know 
that all the materials for happiness exist—land and water, moun¬ 
tains and valleys, clouds and sunshine> rain, ice and snow; rivers 
and lakes, ocean currents and wind currents, etc„ With the 
poet we may begin to think more definitely and certainly than 
did he, that— 

“ There’s not one orb which thou beholdest, 

But in his motion like an angel sings 
Still quiring to the young eyed cherubim; 

But while this muddy vesture of decay 
Doth grossly close us in, we cannot hear it.” 


ASTRONOMY. 


217 


THE MOON. 

The mean distance of the moon from the earth is 238,000 
miles. To travel this distance an express train would require 
about a year. The moon completes its revolution {sidereal) 
around the earth in about 27-J days; but, as the earth is con¬ 
stantly passing on its own orbit around the sun, it requires over 
two days longer before it comes into the same position with 
respect to the sun and earth. Its diameter is about 2,160 miles. 
It would require fifty globes the size of the moon to equal the 
earth. It always appears larger than it really is on account of 
its brightness. Whether the moon has inhabitants or not is an 
open question; but opinion seems to lean to the side of the moom’s 
not being inhabited. For one thing, it has no atmosphere, or 
one so extremely rarefied that it has not yet been discovered. 
It is, however, very curious to think that if there be lunarians , 
they will see-a full earth when we have a new moon,—a bright 
full orbed light fourteen times the size of what the moon is to us. 

COMETS. 

It is recorded that more than 600 comets have been seen. 
The first discovered and described accurately was by Neceph- 
orus, 1337. There are said to be 17,500,000 in the solar system. 
At the birth of Mithridates, two large comets appeared, which 
were seen for seventy-two days together. Their splendor eclipsed 
that of the midday sun, and occupied the fourth part of the 
heavens, about 135 B.c. A comet which terrified the people, 
from its near approach to the earth, was visible from November 
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. It enabled Newton to demonstrate 
that comets, as well as planets, are subject to the law of gravita¬ 
tion. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, passing within 
2,000,000 miles of the earth. Its tail stretched across the heav¬ 
ens like a prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. 
Dr. Herschel computed the length of the comet of 1811 at 
upwards of 100,000,000 miles, and its apparent breadth, at the 
same time, at 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all the autumn 


218 


ASTRONOMY. 


to the naked eye. Halley first proved that many of the appear¬ 
ances of comets were but the periodical return of the same bodies. 
The revolution of Halley's comet is accomplished in seventy-five 
years. It appeared (as he had predicted) in 1759, again in 1835, 
and it is due in 1910. 

Biella's comet has been an object of fear to many on account 
of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but 
a point of the earth's path. It was first discovered by M. Biella, 
an Austrian officer, Februarj 28, 1826. Its revolution is com¬ 
pleted in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Donati's comet, so 
called from its having been first observed by Dr. Donati, of 
Florence, June 2,1858, being then calculated distant 228,000,000 
miles from the earth, had a tail 40,000,000 miles in length. It 
was nearest the earth on October 10, and on the 18th was near 
coming into collision with Venus. The great comet of 1861 was 
about 400 miles in diameter, with a long, brush-like tail. It 
traveled at the rate of 10,000,000 miles in twenty-four hours. 
On June 30 it was suggested that we were in the tail, .there being 
“ a phosphorescent auroral glare.'' No less than seven comets 
were observed in 1881. The most important scientific result 
obtained by observing them was due to successful photographing 
by Prof. Henry Draper, of New York. 

GEOLOGY. 

While the astronomer is studying the form and condition and 
structure of the planets, in so far as the eye and the telescope can 
aid him, the geologist is investigating the form, condition and 
structure of the planet to which he belongs ; and it is from the 
analogy of the earth's structure, as thus ascertained, that the 
astronomer is enabled to form any rational conjecture respecting 
the nature and constitution of the other planetary bodies. Astron¬ 
omy and geology, therefore, are even more than kindred sciences; 
they might be termed twin-sisters on a voyage of discovery in 
the realms of material nature. When the astronomer first sur¬ 
veys the concavity of the celestial vault, he finds it studded with 
luminous bodies, differing in magnitude and luster, some mov- 


GEOLOGY. 


219 


mg to the east, and others to the west; while by far the greater 
number seemed fixed in space; and it is the business of the 
astronomer to assign to each of them its proper place and sphere, 
to determine their true distance from the earth, and to arrange 
them in systems throughout the regions of sidereal space. 

In like manner when the geologist surveys the convexity of 
our globe, he finds its solid covering composed of rocks and beds 
of all shapes and kinds, lying at every possible angle, occupying 
every possible position, and all of them, generally speaking, at 
the same distance from the earth’s center. Everywhere we see 
what was deep, brought into clear relation with what is super¬ 
ficial— what is old with Avhat is new. The business of the geol¬ 
ogist tlfen is to discover how the rocks he meets with come to be 
where they are ; he tries to fix their different ages ; to find out 
when all this happened, and what causes brought about these 
things. Generally it may be said that the results attained by the 
science of geology have been quite as marvelous in their own way 
as those achieved by astronomy. For a considerable time it 
seemed to many that this investigation which deals with rocks 
was taking away from us that religion which is founded upon a 
rock ; but maturer consideration has demonstrated that this is 
not so, and science in this direction, as in every other, amongst 
any but uneducated persons, is proving itself more and more the 
helpmeet of that knowledge of God, and His purposes, on which 
all true religion is ultimately founded. 

WHY SEA-SHELLS ARE FOUND AT GREAT HEIGHTS. 

The action of subterranean forces in breaking through and 
elevating strata of sedimentary rocks — of which the coast of 
Chili, in consequence of a great earthquake, furnishes an exam¬ 
ple — leads us to the assumption that shells found on the ridge of 
the Andes, at an elevation of more than 15,000 feet, may have 
been conveyed to so extraordinary position, not by a rising of the 
ocean, but by the agency of volcanic forces, capable of elevating 
into ridges the softened crust of the earth. 


220 


ANTIQUITY OF GLACIERS. 


SAND OF THE SEA AND DESERT. 

That sand is an assemblage of small stones may be seen by 
any one ; yet, how few are aware of the similarity of the nature 
of the sand of the sea and of the soil on which grain grows. 
Sand is merely soil in its first stage. It is formed by the wear¬ 
ing away of granite rocks, and becomes fertilized by many 
agencies, as, for example, by water, and even by the worms on 
which we tread. 

THE CHALK FORMATION. 

It has been considered by a distinguished naturalist extremely 
probable that every particle of chalk in the world has at some 
period been circulating in the system of a living animal. 

ANTIQUITY OF GLACIERS. 

The importance of the glacier agency in the past as well as the 
present condition of the earth, is undoubtedly very great. One 
of our most accomplished and ingenious geologists has, indeed, 
carried back the existence of glaciers to an epoch of dim antiquity, 
even in the reckoning of that science whose chronology is 
counted in millions of years. Glaciers are vast fields of ice or 
concrete snow, which are formed in the hollows between lofty 
mountains, and abound in the Swiss and Tyrolese Alps. As 
many travelers on the ocean know, they often get floated out to 
sea, and form at certain periods of the year a great danger to 
ships. If we bear in mind that in long past days, water was not 
distributed over the globe as it now is, and that many lands, on 
which cities now are built, were once under the waves, we shall 
be prepared to understand some of the wonderful things that 
glaciers have done. The huge bowlders of rock that are some¬ 
times found heaped one upon another on the tops of hills, and 
which people used to imagine had been placed there by giants 
or witches, were in reality carried and dropped there by glaciers. 

On leaving the land they carried with them huge masses of 
stone and soil, which, as they melted, they dropped. Many 
strange highways have thus been formed by the action of ice. 


CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES. 


221 


In Edinburgh, Scotland, the famous high street was made thus, 
and the magnificent rock at the end of the street, on which the 
castle now stands, was placed there by a glacier! In Hugh 
Miller’s “ Schools and Schoolmasters,” an interesting account 
of this is given. As an instance of the power of ice in this way, 
a writer says that in Lapland he has found large granite bowlders 
weighing several tons actually entangled and suspended like 
birds’ nests in the branches of pine trees, at heights of thirty 
and forty feet above the summer level of the stream! 

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES. 

Various causes may be conceived as possibly producing the 
shock. For example, when the roof of a subterranean cavity 
collapses, a concussion must be produced which may have the 
effect of an earthquake at the surface. In limestone countries, 
such as Carniola, the ground is honeycombed with grottoes and 
passages, and slight shocks of earthquake are of frequent 
occurrence, due no doubt to the falling in of some of these 
underground caverns. More violent effects might arise from 
the collapse of large emptied volcanic reservoirs, as perhaps has 
occurred at the extinct volcano of Ischia. Again, the rocks of 
the crust are in a state of continuous strain due to various 
causes, and especially to the gradual contraction that arises from 
the slow cooling of the planet. From time to time there prob¬ 
ably come moments when they can no longer bear these stresses, 
and when consequently they snap asunder and readjust them¬ 
selves in a new position of equilibrium. It is possible that 
explosive steam may be the cause of earthquake shocks, even 
where no actual volcano is formed. We may suppose, for 
instance, that sea-water sometimes gains access to the highly- 
heated interior of the earth. The sudden generation of steam 
as the water passes out of the spheroidal condition can hardly 
fail to cause an explosion, and thus to start an earthquake. Or 
if a large mass of steam imprisoned within some heated subter¬ 
ranean cavity be suddenly condensed by access of cold water 


m 


GREAT EARTHQUAKES. 


from above, a violent shock will take place. One of the great 
problems in the physics of the earth is if possible to trace oui 
individual earthquakes to their several modes of production. 
The task is a difficult though by no means a hopeless one. But 
until some considerable progress has been made with it, earth¬ 
quakes must remain one of the most curious and interesting 
puzzles that can engage the ingenuity of scientific men. 

GREAT EARTHQUAKES. 

It is recorded that upwards of 60,000 persons perished in the 
great earthquake of Lisbon in November, 1755; 10,000 in an¬ 
other in Morocco; 40,000 in Calabria, 50,000 in Syria *on one 
occasion, and probably 120,000 in the same country in the time of 
Tiberius, A. D. 19. In the year 526, at Antioch, 250,000 per¬ 
sons are said to have perished, and seventy-six years afterwards a 
second earthquake destroyed 60,000 persons. At Pekin, China, 
in November, 1731, 100,000 people were swallowed up. In 1797, 
the whole country between Santa Fe and Panama was destroyed, 
including Cuzco and Quito; 40,000 persons were buried in one 
second. In March, 1860, two-thirds of the city of Mendoza, 
South America, were laid in ruins, and 7,000 lives lost. In 1868 
a terrific earthquake visited Java, destroying property estimated 
at $300,000,000 when 25,000 souls perished and 30,000 rendered 
homeless. Again in 1883 the island of Java was overwhelmed 
by earthquake and volcano, 130,000 inhabitants lost their lives, 
and the very features of the country were so changed that new 
surveys of her coasts had to be made. The most recent earth¬ 
quake occurred at Charleston, 1886, with great destruction of 
property and much suffering; the shock was distinctly felt at 
Chicago, and occasioned considerable alarm. A calculation of 
the number of recorded earthquakes up to the middle of the 
present century, gives for the American hemisphere 717, and for 
other parts of the world, 4,609. The destructive character of 
these disturbances fully warrants the assertion that they are, of 
all terrestrial events, the most fearful. 


THE WIND. 


223 


VELOCITY OF WIND. 

The following table shows the pressure of the wind at differ¬ 
ent velocities: 


DESCRIPTION OF 

WIND. 

VELOCITY. 


PRESSURE 

MILES PER 

HOUR. 

FEET PER 

MINUTE. 

PER SQUARE FOOT IN 

LBS. 

Hardly observable. 

1 

88 

005 nr about. -X an oz. 

Just perceptible.| 

Light breeze. 

2 

3 

4 

176 

264 

352 

.02, 

.045, 

.08, 

- --i z- 

“ X" 

“ X" 
“1X“ 

“ 2 ounces. 

Gentle, pleasant wind. 

5 

440 

.125, 

.5, 

Fresh breeze. 

10 

880 

“ 8 “ 

Brisk blow. 

15 

1,320 

1,760 

2,200 

2,640 

3,080 

3,520 

4,400 

1.125, 

2. 

“ 1 lb. 2 oz. 

Strong wind. 

20 

Verv strong wind. 

25 

3.^125 

4.5 

6.125 

8. 


y 8 ) 
High wind. 

Very high wind. 

30 

35 

40 


Gale. 

50 

12.5 


Violent gale. 

60 

5,280 

18. 

* 

Hurricane. 

80 

7,040 . 

32. 


Tornado!. 

100 

8.800 

50. 



From the above table it will be seen that with a velocity of 
four or five miles per hour, the pressure is less than two 
ounces per square foot of wind surface, and that its effective 
force depends entirely on the velocity. 



























CHAPTER XX. 


HOME HINTS IN SCIENCE. 



WHY AND WHAT WE BREATHE. 

HEN we come to think of it, it is a curious thing that 
we have to breathe. Considering the amount of foul 
air, and the many sicknesses and deaths that are 
caused by people either inhaling poisonous gases, or 
being placed in circumstances where they cannot 
breathe at all, as in the case of drowning, it may 
seem to some as if it would be better not to have to 
perform the operation at all. But, in reality, 
breathing is of the last importance to the human 
frame, as it is by it that the blood is purified,—and 
pure blood is necessary to life. In breathing, the 
oxygen in the air inhaled into the lungs combines 
with the carbon in the blood, when carbonic acid is formed and 
exhaled. With every breath this operation is accomplished. 
The air we exhale, charged with carbonic acid, being heated by 
the body and thus rarefied, is lighter than the outside atmos¬ 
phere, and so ascends; but as it cools down it becomes heavier 
and descends. Accordingly, rooms should be ventilated from 
below as well as from above. Carbon is an elementary substance, 
and is found in great abundance in nature. It exists in three 
forms, namely: charcoal, graphite, and diamond. The reason 
why it is dangerous to burn charcoal in rooms is because the 
carbon of the charcoal unites with the oxygen of the air, forming 
carbonic gas, just as we do in breathing. Now this is a poison. 
If a person were to be shut up in an air-tight compartment of 
even considerable size, as soon as he had exhausted the oxygen 

224 















THE ATMOSPHERE. 


225 


in the air he would speedily become asphyxiated and would die. 
The burning of charcoal in a room only accomplishes this more 
speedily, as more oxygen is consumed and carbonic acid generated 
more rapidly. 

THE ATMOSPHERE. 

The atmosphere is composed of twenty-one parts of oxygen 
and seventy-nine parts nitrogen. Oxygen is an elementary 
gaseous body, the most electro-negative element known. When 
united with twice its bulk of hydrogen, it forms water, and is 
found in compound with nearly every known element. An ele¬ 
ment is a body composed of but one kind of atoms. A com¬ 
pound is a body composed of two or more kinds of atoms. 
Combustion is the rapid union of elements in forming compounds. 
Nitrogen is an elementary gaseous body, and the second electro¬ 
negative element known. It is found in the air and in nearly 
all vegetable and animal tissue. Its use in the atmosphere is 
simply to dilute or weaken the oxygen, and it is not changed by 
respiration. The reason why blowing a fire causes it to burn 
more brightly is, because, with each current of air it receives a 
fresh supply of oxygen ; on the other hand, if a lighted candle 
be placed under a closed vessel it will soon go out, because the 
oxygen will be consumed and the nitrogen will neither burn nor 
support combustion. Hydrogen will not support life or combus¬ 
tion; but when pure it will burn with a steady bluish light,* and, 
if mixed with air, it will explode when brought in contact with 
fire. 

ILLUMINATING GAS. 

It is hydro-carbon, or a compound of hydrogen and carbon ; 
the hydrogen unites with the oxygen of the air, forming water, 
the carbon becomes heated to a glow, and thus gives the light. 
This gas is dangerous to breathe, and if allowed to escape in 
quantity, in a building, is very liable to explode if a light be 
taken near it. The sense of smell readily detects an escape. 
Other sources of hydro-carbon in our dwellings are decomposing 
animal and vegetable substance of drains and water-closets. 

15 


226 


HEAT. 


Great care should be taken to secure effective drainage, and to 
keep the drain-pipes in order, as this gas is most poisonous. 

HEAT. 

Heat is a form of energy. It consists of vibratory motions of 
particles of matter, or results from such motions, and gives rise 
to the well-known sensations of warmth and cold. Its effects 
are expansion, fusion, evaporation, and decomposition. The 
principal sources of heat are the sun, chemical action, mechan¬ 
ical action, sound, light, and'electricity. The reason why burn¬ 
ing-glasses set fire to combustible substances is because they 
gather all the rays of heat that fall upon them to a single point 
or focus, thus making the heat more intense at that point. Fire 
is the rapid union of elements. Smoke is the small particles of 
carbon which have not been consumed by the heat. The reason 
that smoke ascends is because it is held in heated air ; when the 
air cools down the smoke settles. Sometimes the smoke will be 
observed to ascend more directly than at others, the difference 
being occasioned by the varying density of the atmosphere. 
Heat is diffused by conduction, convection and radiation. Con¬ 
duction is the process by which heat passes from the hotter to 
the colder part of a body. Different bodies conduct heat more 
or less rapidly in proportion to the density of their particles, as 
heat travels from particle to particle, and the closer these are 
the faster heat gets along. Thus steel is a swift conductor ; 
wood a very indifferent one, and wool or sawdust the poorest, by 
a long way, of all. Convection , or conveying of heat, is the 
method of diffusing it by actual motion of heated fluid masses ; 
as when hot water rises from the bottom of a vessel and conveys 
heat to the colder water above. Radiation of heat is the propa¬ 
gation of heat by ether. 

Heat can be reflected, and the taking off of heat by the body 
to which it is transmitted is called absorption. Every one has 
noticed that some articles, as marble or iron, feel colder to the 
touch than others when, undoubtedly, they are at the same tem¬ 
perature. The reason of the phenomenon is that they are good 


iHE CAUSE OF WIND. 


22? 


conductors, owing to the density of their particles, and they 
thus conduct the heat away from the hand more rapidly. 
If heat were applied to the other end of an iron instrument, it 
would convey it just as speedily to the hand. And in the same 
way we can understand how ice wrapped up in flannel is longer 
in melting than if placed in an iron box. The heat, to reach 
the ice, must travel from particle to particle of the flannel, and 
thus a long time is taken before it reaches in any quantity the 
ice ; in other words, flannel is a bad conductor. Flannel affords 
warm clothing for the same reason, for the heat of the body 
cannot get away so rapidly as through cotton or silk. A curious 
fact in regard to heat is connected with the formation of ice ; 
water, when it reaches freezing point, is converted into crystals, 
which, coming in contact with one another in the formation 
of what is called ice (and which in reality is an infinite mass of 
crystals), and expanding, generate, and give out heat, so that it 
is frequently warmer when frost sets in. Smooth bright sur¬ 
faces are the best reflectors of heat, whilst black articles absorb 
the heat. Thus a brass kettle, as it reflects the heat, will not 
boil so rapidly as one covered with lampblack; and dark 
clothing in summer-time absorbing the heat more rapidly than 
clothing of a light color, which reflects it, will cause discomfort. 
Therefore, in tropical climates, white is the favorite raiment. 

THE CAUSE OF WIND. 

The temperature of one locality is not the same as that of 
another, consequently the air at some places is lighter than it is 
at others ; the lighter air is forced upwards by the heavier air, 
which, as it flows in, partakes of a circular motion which we 
call wind. If a great difference in temperature arises, a sudden 
change of air takes place and forms a whirlwind , hurricane or 
tornado. This flow of air, on account of heat, is the cause of a 
number of familiar phenomena; for example, the reason that 
air ascends a chimney when a fire is burning in a room, is 
because, being heated by the fire, it is lighter than the air in the 
room, and is thus forced up ; then again it will be observed that 


228 CAUSE OP DEW, RAIN, SNOW, ETC. 

the flame of a candle terminates at a point; that is because 
the cold air rushes to the flame on all sides and is carried 
upwards ; a lamp chimney increases the brilliancy of the flame, 
because it conducts an increase of air to the flame. 

THE CAUSE OP DEW. 

. At night the earth, and all objects upon it, radiate the heat 
received from the sun during the day, and become colder than 
the air; and the vapor of the air, coming in contact with the 
cooler objects, is condensed and deposited in the form of deiv. 
Dew is heavier on some objects than others, because they are 
better radiators of heat. Heavy dews foretell rain, because they 
show that the air is well charged with moisture. Hoar frost is 
frozen dew. 

THE CAUSE OF RAIN. 

When a warm current of air, containing a great amount of 
moisture, comes in contact with a cold current, the moisture is 
condensed and falls in rain. Sometimes a sudden fall of tem¬ 
perature will produce rain without forming visible clouds. The 
reason why more rain falls in March and April than in July and 
August, is because the changes in temperature are more fre¬ 
quent in the former months, and every fall of temperature in 
the air condenses its vapors. The weather, however, is not 
necessarily colder before rain, because this change of tempera¬ 
ture is in the upper currents of air, and not on the surface of 
the earth. 

SNOW. 

Snow consists of the watery particles of the atmosphere fro¬ 
zen, for the most part, in a crystalline form. It is white on 
account of the aggregate reflection of light from the sides of the 
minute crystals. High mountain peaks are covered with snow, 
because the upper regions of the atmosphere are intensely cold. 

HAIL AND SLEET. 

If snow, in falling, passes through a warm current of air it 
is partially melted and becomes sleet . 


LIGHT AHD OPTICS. 


229 


If the raindrops, in falling, pass through a current of air of 
low temperature, the drops become frozen and fall as hail, 

LIGHT AND OPTICS. 

Light travels with the velocity of 192,000 miles a second, so 
that a wave of light issuing from the sun requires eight minutes 
before it reaches the earth. The finding of the velocity of light 
is no less wonderful than the velocity itself. This was discov¬ 
ered in 1676 by the Danish astronomer, Olaus Roemer. Light 
is reflected from any object which lies in its path; perhaps this 
comparison is hardly correct, for all the light does not rebound 
from the reflecting surface, but only a portion of the ray is 
reflected, the rest being absorbed by the body, or, if transparent, 
passing through it. If the surface be perfectly smooth, the 
light which comes from any object is reflected from the surface 
unbroken, just as it comes from the object; this is the case with 
a mirror, and it will be noticed that the image is apparently just 
as far behind the glass as the object is really before it. This 
fact has been taken advantage of by the well-known exhibitors 
of illusions, the best known of which is the “Sphynx.” The 
exhibitor prepares a three-legged table, and fits two sheets of 
looking-glass from one leg to the other two legs. That side of 
the table which has no looking-glass between its legs is away 
from the audience. The floor of the table is covered with green 
baize and the sides hung with red cloth, the audience seeing the 
reflection from the looking-glasses imagine they are looking 
under the table to the back of the stage. Of course the owner 
of the head is kneeling under the table. 

We have all of us observed the beautiful* colored image 
formed by a ray of light passing through a triangular-shaped 
bar of glass called a prism. The ray in passing through the 
prism is delivered from its original direction and appearance, 
and we have projected upon the wall or screen a long streak of 
gorgeously-colored light. While light thus treated is said to he 
“decomposed,” and the ray is said to be refracted from its 


230 


LIGHT AND OPTICS. 


original course. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to discover the 
power of the prism, and to show that ordinary light was com¬ 
posed of seven colored rays united in one. This band of colored 
light is called the ^spectrum.” Dr. Wollaston discovered in 
1802 that the “ spectrum ” from a ray of sunlight was crossed 
by dark bands varying in thickness and definition. Herein lay 
the foundation of one of the greatest marvels of science. In the 
year 1815 a German optician, Fraunhofer by name, discovered 
that the spectrum "was crossed by at least 600 dark lines which 
have ever since gone by the name of “fraunhofer’s lines.” In 
1835 Wheatstone discovered that the'se different lines were pro¬ 
duced by different metals, and this discovery has resulted in a 
way being found by which the materials of which the sun is 
composed can be ascertained. The instrument used for this 
purpose is called the spectroscope. 

As has been shown the ray of light consists of seven distinct 
colors, there is another class of colors apparent in every sub¬ 
stance, which are known as the colors of natural objects. The 
natural color of an object is that in which it appears when illu¬ 
minated by the pure white light of the sun; it is called red, or 
blue, .when it so appears by daylight. Now if an object be illu¬ 
minated by white light, and yet appear of another color, the 
cause of the change must be looked for in the influence which 
the surface of the body exercises on the waves constituting the 
white light. The effects of this influence are very different, 
according to the nature of the coloring matter with which the 
object is provided; in cases where the rays of light are absorbed 
entirely, the object is called black, when the surface of a body 
has the property of absorbing all the colors of the spectrum 
with the exception of one—the red for example—that body 
appears red to us by daylight because this color alone is reflected 
to the eye, when on the contrary it has the power of absorbing 
some of the rays—the red and orange for instance—and of 
reflecting the others, namely the yellow, green and blue, the 
color of the object will then be that produced by the mixture of 


STARS AND METEOROLITES. 


231 


the unabsorbed—the reflected colors. It is therefore easily 
understood why so many different colored objects should be 
seen in nature, with such an infinite variety of tints. 

THE RAINBOW. 

This beautiful arch in the heavens is caused by the refraction 
and reflection of light by the drops of falling water. 

A HALO. 

This is a luminous or colored circle seen around the moon 
under certain conditions of the atmosphere. It generally pre¬ 
cedes wet or stormy weather. 

“ Then up and spake an old sailor, 

Had sailed the Spansli main: 

I prithee put into yonder port 
For I fear a hurricane. 

Last night the moon had a golden ring, 

And to-night no moon we see. ” 

The cause of the halo is the refraction of light by minute 
crystals of ice floating in the higher regions of the atmosphere. 
STARS AND METEOROLITES. 

The reason of the twinkling of stars is that there are a great 
many non-luminous bodies in space and when they pass between 
us and a star, they cut off its light just for an instant, thus 
causing the appearance of twinkling. Meteorolites, or shooting 
stars, are not stars proper, but are non-luminous bodies coming 
in contact with the earth’s atmosphere which becoming ignited 
by their friction upon the air have the appearance of stars. The 
reason of their being seen in such numbers between the 12th and 
14th of November is that the earth is at that time passing 
through space where they abound. 

TWILIGHT AND SUNSET. 

Twiliqht is caused by the bending or reflecting of light by 
the atmosphere. After the sun has gone down, its rays still 
catch the upper air which reflects them upon the earth. When 
there is little or no moisture in the air there is no perceptible 
twilight, whilst in such countries as England it is of quite long 


232 


ELECTRICITY. 


duration. The cause of the colored sky at sunset is that the 
sun’s rays are partially decomposed by the vapor that is in the 
atmosphere; a highly colored sunset predicts a storm because it 
shows that the air contains a great deal of moisture. 

ELECTRICITY. 

Eleciricity is that mode of motion which is manifested by 
attraction and repulsion. It is best understood by its effects. 

The electric light is produced in two principal ways, namely: 
by incandescence or glow, and by the electric arc. The elec¬ 
tricity is produced either from a powerful battery or from a 
magneto-electric machine. In the first method the electricity 
passes through the platinum or carbon, and heats it until it 
glows. In the second case, two points, usually of carbon, are 
separated a short distance, and the passage of the electricity 
over this distance, carrying with it heated particles of carbon, 
gives the light. 

LIGHTNING AND THUNDER. 

Lightning is caused by electricity passing through the clouds 
to the earth, and the clouds becoming oppositely charged, the 
tension of the electricity overcomes the resistance of the air 
between the earth and the clouds, and passes through it. Its 
zigzag course is determined by its seeking the path where there 
is least resistance. Heat lightning is an unsteady glow of light¬ 
ning seen near the horizon, and is simply the reflection of light¬ 
ning so distant from us as to be invisible. The danger of 
standing near a tree during a thunder storm arises from the fact 
that its height and the fact that it is a good conductor create a 
probability of its acting as a conductor for the electricity; in the 
same way it is dangerous to be near a fire during a thunder 
storm as the smoke and flame are conductors of electricity. 
The safest place is in the center of a dry room, away from all 
metals and other conductors of the fluid. 

Thunder is caused by the sudden rush of air into the vacuum 
which the electricity, as it darts with inconceivable rapidity, 
1 eaves behind it. When it is near, the sound from all parts of the 


HEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


233 


flash reaohes us at the same time, and there is a crash, but when 
the lightning is distant from us the sound does not reach us 
at the same time, and instead of a clap of thunder there is a 
prolonged rumble. 

SOUND. 

jSound jg caused by the vibration of air acting on the auditory 
nerve. Its rate of speed is about 1,090 feet per second. It 
will be observed that sound seems to travel better in some con¬ 
ditions of the atmosphere than in others. On a damp day, for 
instance, one hears more distinctly than on a dry one, the reason 
being that damp air is the better conductor of sound. To ascer¬ 
tain the distance of a thunder storm, if the number of beats of 
the pulse be counted from the time of seeing the flash to the 
hearing of the thunder, five beats will represent a mile. 

HEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 

The atmosphere envelops the earth to a height of from 50 to 
200 miles; its pressure on the earth’s surface is fifteen pounds to 
the square inch, so that the pressure on the average man is 
30,000 pounds, or fifteen tons. The pressure, however, is not 
felt because it is equal on all sides of him and internal as well 
as external. Its force is shown by the fact that it will raise 
water in a pump thirty feet. A column of water thirty feet high 
and one inch area across section weighs fifteen pounds. 

The reason that a stove smokes when first lighted is because 
the air in the chimney is at the same temperature as the air in 
the room; as soon, however, as it becomes heated the chimney 
begins to draw, and the annoyance ceases. The best means of 
conveying air to fires, is by tubes built in the wall communi¬ 
cating with the outer air and terminating beneath the grate. 
Chimneys smoke in damp weather, because the heated air in 
giving off its moisture becomes heavier than the outer air. 

THE BAROMETER. 

The barometer is an instrument for measuring the pressure 
of the atmosphere. There are two forms; the mercurial, con- 


234 


THE THEEMOMETEE. 


sisting of a glass tube over thirty inches long, filled with mercury, 
and the aneroid, a cylindrical box of metal, with a hand to indi¬ 
cate the pressure. The rising of the barometer generally pre¬ 
sages fair weather; the falling, the contrary; a sudden change 
in the barometer, a sudden change in the weather; a gradual 
change in the barometer, a gradual change in the weather. 
Dry air is heavier than moist air. 

THE THEEMOMETEE. 

The word thermometer means a measure or measurer of heat. 
It is an instrument by which with the aid of mercury the tem¬ 
perature can be told. Mercury, like other metals, expands with 
heat and contracts with cold; and as it expands it will evidently 
take up more room and so ascend or fill up the tube of the 
instrument, whilst as it cools it contracts and descends. 

WHY EAIM WATEE IS SOFT. 

Rain water is soft because it is condensed evaporation, and 
water on evaporating does not carry with it the minerals in it. 
The reason why spring water is more difficult to wash with is 
because the minerals in the water act contrary to the soap, 
destroying its power of action. Ordinary soap will not act at all 
in seawater, but careful housewives, in rinsing clothes where 
there are colors that are apt to run, put a handful of salt into 
the water which has the effect of preventing any such tendency. 
Spring water is more palatable than distilled water because it 
contains carbonic acid; in the process of boiling this is lost. 


CHAPTER XXI. 


THE FINE ARTS. 


WHAT IS ART? 

|P ANY one were to ask the question, “ what is art?” 
there are very many who would be puzzled to give a sat¬ 
isfactory answer. One may know, in a general way, 
what a thing is, without having the ability to define 
it. In the ordinary affairs of life we have mostly to 
get along with only a mere acquaintance or recogni¬ 
tion of subjects and things, and for practical purpos¬ 
es this is quite sufficient. A man may be able to 
distinguish and deal in precious stones and metals 
without knowing much, if anything, of their nature. 
A dry-goods man may sell' silk and wool and cotton 
for half a century, and continue to be ignorant of 
their origin and essential properties. Most of us go on living our 
life in those wonderful bodies of ours with amazingly little un¬ 
derstanding of physiology. A Latin poet sings: 

Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas. 

(Happy is he who knows the origin of things.) 



The mind which is at all cultivated refuses to be satisfied 
with a mere mass of details. There is an instinctive desire to 
get down to principles. Everything, indeed, which has a last¬ 
ing existence rests on a principle. Get at that and the super¬ 
structure of knowledge is founded securely. Mere memory is 
fortified by reason. When we know why a thing is so, and not 
simply that it is so, we have obtained a key to the door of 
knowledge which forgetfulness can not easily steal from us. A 
definition then of a science or an art which has been thoroughly 

335 











236 


WHAT IS ART? 


grasped and understood becomes extremely valuable. It is like 
the compass on board ship, or the polar star in the heavens. 
From it we can at need discover whither we are steering. 

Some one asks us then, “What is art?” We might reply 
music is an art, sculpture, poetry. He might say, “ Yes, these 
no doubt are arts, but what makes them so ?” “ What is the 

very essence of art ?” “ Why is art art; why is it itself and not 

something else ? ” Then probably we should feel puzzled to 
give a reply satisfactory even to ourselves. How let us see if we 
cannot solve the difficulty so that never again such questions 
should cause us bewilderment, even when we ask them of our¬ 
selves, as most of all we frequently should do. 

Certain truths may be enumerated, to begin with, which will 
have their elucidation afterwards. “ All art is in its origin con¬ 
nected with religion.” It is not out of mere utility it springs, 
although it is often superimposed upon it, as, for example, archi¬ 
tecture on the mere building. The fine arts, as they are called, 
really begin where utility ends. Art may be said to exist for 
itself. It is a creation of the soul. There are longings or needs 
in our very being which art satisfies just as food meets the crav¬ 
ings of hunger. We must free our minds of the idea that true 
art, in any of its forms, is the mere result of idle fancy, of wealth 
or leisure, of caprice in any shape. Art is what it is, essentially, 
or it is notart. We cannot determine art shall be this or that 
at our pleasure. It is as much a real existence as is man man, or 
nature nature. Its principles are certain and fixed, and this 
does not contradict the fact that its manifestations are infin¬ 
itely various. The sculptor, the painter, the dramatist will 
impress on his creations the marks of his own individuality, but 
there will still be a center at which they altogether meet. No 
two human beings are, in every respect, alike. Every Jack and 
every Harry has some feature peculiar to himself which distin¬ 
guishes him from every other Jack and every other Harry. Each 
individual of us feels, sometimes with pardonable pride, and 
sometimes, perhaps, although not so often, with a certain degree 


WHAT IS AKT ? 


237 


of humility, that there is little practical danger of our being 
taken for anyone else. And yet think of the number of people 
in the world. Is it not a wonder that we do not frequently get 
mixed up ? Nor can it be said that it is the milliner or the 
tailor who puts on us our stamp of individuality. The lower 
animals of the same kind are each distinguishable from the 
other. A shepherd on the hills, or on the plains, can tell every 
individual sheep, and no doubt in a community of grasshoppers, 
or ants, there are individual marks of difference. No two trees 
of the same species are precisely alike. Yet all men are the 
same in being men, and all flowers in being flowers. Thus art 
is infinitely various in its manifestations, but at its root it is 
always the same. In our appreciation of a work of art the same 
truth comes out. We all admire the grand and beautiful, and 
have an aversion to the unsightly and ugly, but still how infi¬ 
nitely varied is taste. Do we not perpetually differ as to the 
degree of our admiration or dislike ? And do not special objects 
attract and repel one which are perfectly indifferent to another ? 

In our judgments in regard to music, the drama, or some paint¬ 
ing or masterpiece of sculpture, we are, without the possibility 
of avoiding it, influenced by our character, talent, age, tempera¬ 
ment, education and the very climate we live in. 

All of us are possessed of certain passive artistical powers. 
These are our bodily senses, or rather some of them, for all the 
senses are not applicable to art, just as all sights and sounds, on 
the other hand, do not contribute to its creations. The two 
senses which may be said almost exclusively to be subservient to 
art are sight, or seeing, and hearing. In addition to the senses, 
art uses and appeals to the emotions and passions of the soul. 

The sense of seeing makes possible the arts of painting, 
sculpture, architecture, costume and gardening. Hearing in its 
turn gives us music and eloquence. Hearing was also necessary 
for the origin of poetry, although now it is non-essential. 

Hearing and sight together come into play in dramatic * 
acting. We are influenced through sight by beauty, symmetry. 


238 


WHAT IS ART ? 


gestures, facial expressions, costume of the actor, by the phys¬ 
ical impersonation of the character which he represents. He is 
a living portrait. He is animated sculpture. He is dramatic¬ 
ally successful so far, if he exactly embodies, or rather ideally 
embodies, the creation of the dramatist. For the time being, 
Charles Kean, McCullough, Booth or Irving is forgotten, and 
we are in Denmark in the presence of Hamlet; transported to 
France, we gaze on Louis XI. 

The sense of hearing plays a no less—perhaps, indeed, a 
nobler—part. Through it enter into the soul the lofty sentiment, 
the impassioned utterance, the flashing wit of tragedy, the 
humor and pathos of comedy. The voice falls on the ear, stir¬ 
ring a thousand varied emotions in the soul. How the heart is 
melted, steeled, thrilled, exalted, depressed, by the artistic 
cadence of that most marvelous of instruments the human 
voice ! What can it not do with us ? Transported, vanquished, 
moved to tears and laughter, not by the words but by the way 
they are uttered. It was said of Rubini that he had tears in his 
voice; and we have all met with one or more of those exquisitely 
modulated voices which it was delight simply to listen to. We 
have felt inclined to plead, “ Do not mind what you say, only 
speak.” 

In this view of dramatic acting we have at least a glimpse of 
what a noble thing it may be, and ought always to be. It may 
be said to be greater than any single art, in that it embraces 
them all—presses them in a body into its service. On the stage, 
painting, sculpture, architecture, music, poetry and eloquence 
have each and all their proper place. Dramatic art is thus art’s 
climax. Ruskin says somewhere : “ The highest thing that art 
can do, is to set before you the true image of the presence of a 
noble human being. It has never done more than this, and it 
ought not to do less.” Such is the ideal of the drama. 

Art has for its object to minister to the sensibilities of the 
mind or soul. We are conscious in ourselves, in our very 
nature, of certain needs which are far deeper and more 


WHAT IS ART ? 


239 


lasting than the mere animal passions. We are capable of 
admiration, hope and love—three things a great poet says we 
live by; and those spiritual emotions, so to speak of them, 
require to be called into action, and satisfied. A humdrum, 
bread and butter existence is after all not enough for a man. 
He needs something different, not because he is bad, but because 
he is good. If you keep him on the treadmill of life, or if he keeps 
himself in ignorance there, he is apt to become a drunkard or a 
money grub, or something else always unloveable, unadmirable, 
sordid and mean. Art steps in and stirs us up. It astonishes 
us by discovering to ourselves that we have a soul above buttons. 
To quote Ruskin again, he says “ that the fine arts demand the 
exercise of the full {acuities of heart and intellect.” If anything 
debasing is found in them, that is not their fault, but because 
something alien and false has been imported into them. All 
true art is founded on and tends to morality. 

From what has been said it will be recognized that mere 
pleasure, in the narrow sense, is not the object of art. Nor is 
its object to inflict pain. There is often something.higher than 
either of these taken singly. In music the most exquisite effects 
are produced by a union of discords. There is such a thing as 
contrapunctal complication. The effects of art on the mind are 
often produced in an analogous way. It may move to willing 
tears. There is a blending of pleasure and pain which we would 
not readily forego. The soul seems to rouse itself, and realize 
its own nobleness and capacity, in presence of the direst tragedy. 
Jessica says, “ I am never merry when I hear sweet music.” 
Shelley in his “Skylark,” “Our sweetest songs are those that 
tell of saddest thought;” and Coleridge in his charming Gene¬ 
vieve— 

She loves me best whene’er I tell 

The tales that make her grieve. 

Through the senses the mind perceives certain qualities or 
properties of things. Seeing and hearing make us familiar with 
the external world. Thus we become acquainted with the 


240 


WHAT IS ART? 


attributes of color, form, sound, size, motion and the like. 

Upon these art takes hold, and by selection and combination 
forms its creations. Painting appropriates color and surface 
form; sculpture, form in all its dimensions; music appropriates 
sound, and dramatic art may be said to combine all three. 

We go a step farther when we come to consider the part 
played by the emotions and passions of the soul. Art could not 
be said to be art apart from these. Every pleasurable emotion 
has not an artistic source. To a considerable extent the delight 
we experience through the organs of sight and sound is shared 
by the lower animals, and some of them may be considered no 
mean artists. Birds listen with pleasure to good music. Who 
has not marked a favorite songster, with head to one side, criti¬ 
cally taking in some piece that is being played? What rivals 
they are of each other! It is said that the Arabs cheer,their 
wearied and overburdened camels, when crossing the desert, with 
music, and that they thus get work out of them when nothing 
else would rouse them to exertion. We find in birds again the 
love of gaudy plumage, and they show often the greatest skill 
in the architecture of their nests. Any such indications of an 
artistic bias, however, halt at a certain point. We deal with a 
known quantity which is never exceeded, and we call it instinct. 
In man the action and the consequences of the action of the 
emotions and passions cannot be measured thus. When in 
presence of a work of art we can hardly tell how two different 
individuals will be affected, except in a general or rough way. 
The emotions are capable of infinite training. The passions vary 
in intensity beyond computation. On these depend our taste 
and our opinions; habit and cultivation lend their aid to create 
differences; until it is probable that in the presence of some 
great work of art,— a noble landscape, a battle-field, a touching 
home-scene,— no two individuals experience precisely the same 
amount of emotion. So with music, and so with dramatic art. 
In regard to Wagner, for example, we can fancy that whilst one 
of an audience would sit entranced during the performance of 


WHAT IS ART ? 


241 


“Lohengrin,” another might feel inclined to yawn, and a third 
to run away. In artistic creation similarly the emotions and 
passions stimulate the action of the intellectual faculties. A 
great poet we recognize must have a heart as well as a head. A 
cold, calculating, even, never-up and never-down nature, is not 
the stuff of which a Shakespeare is made. 

We have seen then, so far, the part that the senses play in 
regard to art. Sight and hearing are the ministers of art. The 
other senses may be called art's handmaids. Sight and hearing 
conduct impressions inward to the emotions and passions, which 
breathe into them the breath of life, and the intellect then shapes 
them into or stamps them as ideas. Ideas are the spiritual material 
with which art works, and it gives them expression in what are 
called the fine arts—painting, sculpture, music, and the rest. It 
is by the combination of ideas that the various results are accom¬ 
plished. The mind is utterly unable to create any new idea, or 
object, except by this means. The materials must always be pro¬ 
vided. But the activity of the mind makes the power of combi¬ 
nation inexhaustible. The most magnificent efforts of poets and 
painters have been accomplished by the harmonious combination 
of simple ideas or objects. If we take, as an instance, a thrilling 
story: we read it from beginning to end with breathless interest. 
It is intensely real to us. Every character in it is as living as 
ourselves. We follow the plot, and are trembling, exultant, 
anxious, hopeful, as we pass from page to page. We are irritated 
when the hero or heroine does some foolish thing, or is blind to 
what, to us, is as plain as a pikestaff. We hate the villain and 
long to see him hanged. Well, then, the story is a fiction and 
we know it. Those events never happened precisely as they are 
narrated in this book. Why do they affect us so, then? Are we 
the silly dupes of any combination of absurdities or improbabili¬ 
ties? Certainly not. We recognize that all these events might 
have happened, and that they.have individually, in one connection 
and another, really occurred. The story does not outrage 
experience, but, quite otherwise, is perfectly true to it. The 
16 


242 


WHAT IS ART? 


author — the artist — has simply shown genius in the choice and 
arrangement of his materials. There is nothing absolutely new 
in the materials. He has not created his book as God, according 
to Genesis, created the world — out of nothing. But still the book 
is new. It is after all a creation of the highest kind. It is not 
a piece of patchwork; it is not a skillful imitation. It is itself, 
neither more nor less, just as a human being is. All the words of 
which a poem is composed are in the dictionary, but there they 
do not form a poem. For that, the genius of the poet or the 
maker is needed. All the colors that the artist uses are in the 
paint-box, but they form there no picture. It is for the painter 
to give them harmony in combination. 

We begin to see now that, although the channel of art is the 
senses, the fountain of it is in the mind, and that it calls into 
play the whole faculties of the soul. Art, we now perceive, is 
the exercise of man’s consciousness on the materials of experi¬ 
ence, and the various arts are its modes of expression. It selects 
from its exhaustless storehouse whatever suits its purpose, and, 
combining its material harmoniously, and in a living way, pre¬ 
sents its creation to the world. 

In this view, when we think highly of art we think highly of 
man, and if we regard man as noble so do we regard art, for art 
is man at his best. And “ What a piece of work is man! How 
noble in reason! How infinite in faculties! In form, and mov¬ 
ing, how express and admirable! In action, how like and angel! 
In apprehension, how like a god!” 

This further may be observed, that art can never be said to 
be completed or perfected. If it be true that the world of 
humanity develops, so must it be true of art. Every step taken 
upwards by mankind will be a step taken upwards by art. 
Every advance in civilization will necessitate a new departure in 
art, which is the expression of man at his best. And, alas, every 
retrograde movement, every declension in morality, every suc¬ 
cessful inroad of corruption, must witness the deterioration of 
art. In this sense most truly does it “hold the mirror up to 


WHAT IS ART? 


243 


nature." Moral pollution and intellectual decay witness its 
debasement. Universal anarchy, if that were possible, would 
witness its death. “Art is long!" Yes, art is immortal, even 
as the soul is immortal. 

Art, then, in its essence consists in the embodiment and 
development of the most refined, pure, and noble ideas that 
spring from, or are called forth in, the soul. And this is true 
of all the arts. 

Any account of the origin of art would be incomplete with¬ 
out some notice of the tendency in the human mind to imitate. 
We see this tendency very strikingly exhibited in children, and 
in the beginnings of art it is as clearly discernible. In one 
sense, all the five principal arts — poetry, sculpture, painting 
architecture and music — aim at producing an imitation. If we 
are dissatisfied with a statue, we tell the sculptor that no real 
legs or arms could ever resemble those he has fashioned. To a 
painter we say that the perspective is bad, his coloring unbear¬ 
able, because the opposite of what we see in nature. Another 
illustration of the presence of imitation is furnished by what 
occurs to all artists. To begin with, they work after models, 
endeavoring to reproduce the very appearance of things, and 
doing so with the greatest minuteness. But although all this 
is true, literal imitation is not the end of art, and indeed may 
become an obstacle to its progress. Otherwise we should con¬ 
sider the makers of casts, or photographs, among the greatest of 
artists. An artist who should devote all his time to producing 
pictures or portraits bearing the characteristics of photographs 
is unworthy the name. He may produce on canvas every spot 
and wrinkle of the original, and succeed in finishing a portrait 
so perfectly that it will almost seem to breathe. The spectator 
marvels, but remains unaffected. His mind has not been 
impressed with the deep and lasting sensation, which follows 
the contemplation of a work of true art. That mere imitation 
is not the object of the artist is proved even more conclusively 
by sculpture than by painting. A statue can never be made to 


244 


WHAT IS ART ? 


represent a living original in a purely mechanical way. When 
this is attempted, as in the images of the saints which fill the 
churches in Naples and Spain, the effect is revolting. Of imi¬ 
tation there must be a little, but very little, being limited to the 
relation and mutual dependence of the several parts; in other 
words, if the limbs be of a certain size, the body must be in 
proportion; the angles which are observed in the living model 
must be reproduced in the copy. 

In a true work of art the essential character of the subject is 
brought into prominence; that which would conceal it being left 
on one side, and that which would alter it being modified«or 
suppressed. What nature has made dominant the artist must 
make predominant. We have seen then the part played by 
imitation, and we have distinguished between literal and intelli¬ 
gent imitation; we have seen that what must be reproduced is 
the relation of parts; and finally we have found that these must 
be studied with a view to the bringing into prominence of an 
essential characteristic.. From these things we get the following 
definition: “The end of a work of art is to bring into relief 

some striking or essential characteristic, more completely and 
clearly than is done in real objects. This characteristic in the 
mind of the artist is an ideal. The effect is accomplished by 
employing a group of linked parts, the relations of which are sys¬ 
tematically modified. In the imitative arts — sculpture, paint¬ 
ing and poetry — these wholly correspond to real objects.” And 
just here it may be said that art is by no means restricted to 
subjects of rare and unfrequent occurence, but finds its vocation 
equally wherever women are patient and men are strong; wher¬ 
ever hearts are gladdened by the bursting of springtime buds, 
or feel the gloom of a winter’s night. Wherever true lives are 
led, whether in joy or sorrow, there is the need of, and the 
capability of, art; for art is after all but the gathering up of the 
threads of meaning, that lie hid in commonplace as well as 
in heroic occurrences, and their expression in an abiding form. 

There are some pretty traditions connected with the origin 


WHAT IS ART? 


245 


of the arts. Portrait painting, e. g ., was fabled as having come 
from a Grecian maid imitating, or tracing on the wall, the 
shadow of her sleeping lover—rather a charming idea. Music 
was said to have been suggested by the notes made by the strik¬ 
ing of hammers on the anvil; or again by the sounds made by 
the wind among the reeds on the banks of the Nile. Architect¬ 
ure was thought to have been suggested by groves of trees and 
arched caves; hut such fables, although they have a poetic inter¬ 
est, are of no scientific value. 

Let us then gather up results. The two senses, which are 
almost exclusively the medium of art, are seeing and hearing. 
The sense of seeing makes possible the arts of painting, sculpture, 
architecture, costume and gardening. Hearing gives us music, 
eloquence. It was also requisite to the origin of poetry, but may 
now be considered as a non-essential. Hearing and sight are 
combined in dramatic acting, which thus embraces all the arts. 

The emotions and passions give life to the perceptions of the 
senses and the intellect by selection, and combination forms 
them into ideas. These ideas embodied in some permanent form, 
as painting, music or poetry, become creations or works of art. 
Ruskin was quoted to the effect that “ the fine arts demand the 
exercise of the full faculties of the heart and intellect.” It 
became evident in consequence that, although the materials of 
art are provided for it, the chief part is played by the mind. In 
a word, art has its origin in the soul. Imitation is not the high¬ 
est mode of art, although it has its own province. Things must 
have an existence or there could be no art, because no materials 
for it. They must also exist in a certain way. A river must 
have banks , a tree has trunk and branches. These certain ways 
are the laws of their being. Take away the hanks and you have 
no river. These conditions or laws must be observed in the 
creations of art. They must be copied, or imitated. Beyond 
these limitations, however, art has free scope and its resources 
are inexhaustible ; its field is limitless. We saw that the crea¬ 
tion of a work of art, and the appreciation of it, will be deter- 


246 


WHAT IS ART ? 


mined in kind and character by the character of the artist, and 
of him who is in presence of it. 

It is intensely interesting to trace the development of art 
through all its stages. We have in its history a distinct revelation. 
We behold the dawn of spiritual ideas, and are made conscious 
of the gathering and growing light, as the ages roll on. It i s 
pathetie to look on the first efforts of our race to image forth 
their higher aspirations. 

All tend upwardly though weak, 

Like plants in mines that never saw the sun, 

But dream of him, and guess where he may be, 

And do their best to climb and get to him. 

In this great country art has not as yet fully realized herself. 
The nation is too young. The elements still need fusing. The 
nation must become self-conscious. Perhaps it requires more 
history. The very vastness of its territory, and its limitless 
resources, render art difficult. Fitly, as yet, invention occupies 
men's minds. The acquisition of wealth is a main ambition. 
Utility always precedes art. But the love of culture is stead¬ 
ily manifesting itself. Music and the drama have in this 
land already their most enthusiastic patrons and admirers. 
Architecture, sculpture, paihting and poetry have made won¬ 
derful advances. It is predicted that on the shores of our lakes 
and in the valley of the Mississippi, art is to find her most 
splendid home and give birth to her noblest creations. If the 
fusion of cultured races, and the ampler ether, the diviner air of 
freedom; if the release from carking cares and narrowing wants; 
if the experience of all the ages without the penalty of custom 
which rests on old and waning nationalities “ heavy as frost, 
as deep almost as life," if these avail anything (and what do they 
not avail!) then art which had its dawn in the East will in the 
West discover its perfect day. 




CHAPTER XXII. 


MUSIC — PAINTING — SCULPTURE. 



IJSIC is a combination or succession of sounds having 
the property of pitch. Most people are conscious of 
the pleasurable sensations produced thus, although 
occasionally an individual is to be met, with “no 
music in his soul." When “married to immortal 
verse” this art becomes one of the very highest medi¬ 
ums for the expression and evocation of passion 
and sentiment. A succession or progression of 
musical sounds constitutes melody , whilst two or 
more musical sounds, heard simultaneously, whose 
relative pitch is properly proportioned, constitute a 
chord , and a succession of chords produce harmony. 
Italy is the land of melody ; Germany that of harmony. Prac¬ 
tically all our well known melodies are traceable to the one 
country, and all our harmonies to the other. Music is produced 
by the human voice, and by a great variety of instruments. 
Musical instruments are divisible into three classes. Stringed 
instruments are of various kinds. In some, such as the piano¬ 
forte, sounds are produced by striking the strings by keys ; in 
others, as the harp, guitar and mandolin, by drawing the strings 
from a position of rest; and still in others, as the violin, by 
causing them to vibrate with a bow. The second great class 
comprises wind instruments , in which the sound is produced by 
the agitation of an enclosed column of air, allowed to escape at 
different intervals. The flute, clarionet, oboe, bassoon, hautboy 
— constructed of wood—are played by the breath, as are metal 
instruments such as the trumpets, cornet-a-piston, horn, etc. 

247 
















248 


MUSIC — PAINTING — SCULPTURE. 


In the case of the harmonium and concertina, the sound is pro¬ 
duced by the action of wind on free vibrating springs or reeds. 
Instruments of percussion are such as drums, cymbals, etc. 

Some sort of music seems to have existed from the earliest 
times, and even savage tribes have invariably been found to pos¬ 
sess something answering to what appears to be a universal need. 
An exception indeed may perhaps be found in a certain African 
tribe who, Livingstone relates, went into convulsions of laughter, 
when a hymn was sung. They, however, may have had their 
own ideas as to what constitutes music. We read of Moses' 
song and Miriam's timbrel. Representations of musical instru¬ 
ments are found on Egyptian obelisks and tombs. The Chinese 
have very ancient instruments; one resembling the Celtic harp. 
The lyrical poetry of the Greeks attained its marvelous perfec¬ 
tion owing to the intimate relation between poetry and music. 
The Thebean Pindar (552 b.c.) was courted by kings and 
princes, and employed by different states to compose choral 
songs for special occasions, especially the public games. The 
Romans had both stringed and wind instruments. 

The music of modern Furope is, however, a new art. Like 
other Christian art it originated with the Church. St. Ambrose 
and Gregory the Great improved the chorale , which was at first 
sung in octaves and unisons. To Guido of Arezzo is due nota¬ 
tion bylines and spaces. Franco of Cologne, in the 13th century, 
indicated the duration of notes by diversity of form. The inven¬ 
tion of the organ greatly stimulated the development of har¬ 
mony, The airs which have become national are the result of a 
secular music, which asserted an independent existence, and had 
its chief seat in Belgic Gaul. In the 15th century Josquin 
Depres, in Flanders, began the reconciliation of musical science 
with musical art. The renaissance of art and the Reformation 
witnessed the birth of the opera, which added greatly to the 
domain of music. Instrumental music made gigantic strides. 
“Corelli's compositions exalted the violin. Lulli and.Rameau, 
with their ballet-like music, seized the characteristics of the 


DISTINGUISHED COMPOSERS. 


249 


French taste, till the German Gluck drove them out of the field. 
The scientific and majestic fugue reached its highest perfection 
under J. S. Bach. The changes introduced in ecclesiastical 
music in England at the Restoration, produced the school of 
Purcell; and a little later England adopted the German Handel, 
who was the precursor of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Sphor and 
Mendelssohn. ” The most remarkable development of the opera 
in recent years has been the Wagnerian. Without attempting 
to characterize “the music of the future” it may be said that 
Wagner holds that its subject ought to be either mythological or 
supernatural . 

DISTINGUISHED COMPOSERS. 

G. Palestrina (1514-1594) effected a complete revolution in 
musical compositions for the church. 

Peri in 1594 composed the first opera, which he named 
Dafre. The words were by the poet, Rinuccini. 

Claudio Monteverde (1566-1650) gave a pronounced form to 
the opera. 

Emilio del Cavaliere , in 1600, composed the first oratorio, 
Uanimo e corps . It was performed at a church in Rome. 

Guicomo Carissimi (1580-1673) greatly improved the ora¬ 
torio. His chief works were Jephtha and Jonah. 

The German, as a distinctive school, grew up with the great 
Protestant movement under Luther (1483-1546.) 

Henry Purcell (1658-1695) styled “England's greatest musi¬ 
cal genius” composed many operas. One of "the finest, The 
Tempest , has words composed by the poet Dryden. He also com¬ 
posed 12 sonatas for the violin. He died at the age of 37. 

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) composed much exqui¬ 
site music of varied kinds. Almost the last of his works was 
his Art of. Fugue, written shortly before his blindness. 

George Frederick Handel (1685-1759). The masterpiece of 
this eminent and prolific genius is his oratorio. The Messiah , 
composed 1741. His is the well known “Harmonious Black¬ 
smith. ” 


250 


DISTINGUISHED COMPOSERS. 


L P. Rameau (1683-1764). French opera. 

Ch. W, Gluck (1714-1787). His Orfeo was performed at 
Vienna in 1764 on the occasion of the marriage of Joseph II. 
He has the distinction of rising completely above the Italian 
opera of his time. 

Joseph Haydn (1732-3809). Delightfully' graceful and 
gentle in his music, he produced a marvelously great quantity 
of work.—Symphonies 118, sonatas 44, operas 19, masses 15, 
concertos 24, quartets 83, trios 24, dances 400, other composi¬ 
tions 163, total 890. His chef d'oeuvre is his oratorio. The 
Creation . 

W. A. Mozart (1756-1791) endowed the orchestra with an 
individual voice. He produced Le Nozze de Figaro in 1787, and 
Don Giovanni in 1788. He expanded Handel’s Messiah. 
Distinguished as a contrapuntist. His Requiem was written for 
the greater part on his death-bed. 

M. L. Cherubine (1760-1842). Native of Florence. Best 
opera, Les Deux Jourees. Composed chiefly church music. He 
wrote masses, many of them grand and impressive compositions. 
Beethoven pronounced him “ the most estimable of living musi¬ 
cians.” 

Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770-1827). The greatest among 
German composers. Mozart, on hearing him improvize on a 
given theme, said to his friends, “ take care of his youth, and 
he will one day astonish the world.” He studied under Haydn, 
but they did not draw to each other, Haydn’s temperament was 
mild and equable; Beethoven’s enthusiastic and eccentric. He 
commenced his public career in 1795. His only opera, Leonora , 
was not a success. He was not prolific in church music. He 
composed, however, a great variety of music, but he is best known 
in his solo sonatas for the piano, of which there are thirty-five. 
As a virtuoso on the piano, he outstripped all his contempor¬ 
aries, including the celebrated Hummel. In his later years he 
was stone-deaf and was haunted by an unreasonable dread of 
poverty. He died at Vienna, and was buried with great pomp. 


DISTINGUISHED COMPOSEKS. 


251 


J. K. Hummel (1778-1837). Schliiter says of him, “after 
the three great masters Hummel is the best pianoforte (not 
sonata) composer.” His masses take a high rank even now. 

Ludwig Sphor (1784-1859). His two greatest operas are 
Faust (eclipsed by Gounod) and Jessonda. Oratorios, The Last 
Judgment , and Calvary. His symphonies are admirable but 
extremely difficult. His two great violin concertos are fre¬ 
quently selected by modern virtuosi for the display of skill on 
the most difficult of instruments. 

Karl Maria Von Weber (1786-1826). Taught by Haydn. 
His opera Der Frieschiitz opened a brilliant career for him. His 
Euryanthe was produced in 1823, and his Oberon was first per¬ 
formed at Covent Garden Theater under his own baton. 

Schubert (1797-1828.) Meyerbeer (1794-1864). Mendels- 
slion (1809-1847). Schumann (1810-1849). Chopin (1810- 
1849). Rossini (1792-1868). Bishop (1782-1855). Balfe 
(1808-1870). Bennet (1816-1875). 

Charles Gounod , born 1818, stands at the head of composers 
of the present day. Faust is his chef d'oeuvre. 

Guiseppe Verdi, born 1814. Excelled all the Italian school 
in opera. Among his numerous and popular operas are Ernani, 
II Trovatore, La Traviata, Rigoletto, Un Ballo in Maschera 
Aida. 

Richard Wagner, born 1813. He has endeavored to revolu¬ 
tionize the whole system of opera, and to overturn all previous 
notions of musical form. His Rienzi is formed on old models. 
His best known operas are, Tanhauser, Lohengrin, Tristan and 
Isolde, Meistersinger, and Der Ring den Nibelungenliecl. 

Franz Liszt (1811-1886). 

MUSICAL SCHOOLS. 

In this matter there is great confusion. Some divide com¬ 
posers into Belgian, Flemish, Roman, Venetian, Neapolitan, 
Spanish, German, French and English. There are writers who 
group composers by their nationality and others who arrange 
them according to their style of composition. Some would make 


252 


PAINTING. 


two broad schools, Italian and German, whilst others would add 
a French and an English school. Others again deny altogether 
the existence of an English school. One must use his own 
judgment as to what arrangement to adopt if he does not feel 
equal to originating a classification for himself. 

PAINTING. 

Painting as a fine art is a subject so extensive that its treat¬ 
ment in these pages cannot possibly be more than the merest 
sketch. The art is, undoubtedly, very ancient, although not so 
old as architecture or sculpture. We know that the Assyrians 
practiced it, the beginning of whose power takes us back to the 
13th century B.c. Painting and sculpture were forbidden 
among the Jews. No works by Greek painters are extant, but 
we can form some idea of the excellence they attained from the 
descriptions of classic writers. A curious story is told of one of 
their greatest artists, Zeuxis, that he died of laughing at the 
life-like portrait of an old woman which he had painted. With 
the Etruscans painting was a favorite art, and the importance 
of their wall-paintings in the history of the classic art is con¬ 
sidered very great. Antique painting is known to us from wall- 
paintings, many.of them frescoes, at Herculaneum, Pompeii, 
Stabiae, and in Rome and its vicinity. 

Early Christian art had, for a long time, no vigorous life of 
its own, and, with the decline of Roman art, it declined. In the 
13th century it revived. This was the period of the rise of the 
mendicant orders, which mark a new era in religious thought, 
and also in religious art. St. Francis of Assisi was the moving 
spirit, and in the Academy of Florence there are paintings of 
that time representing scenes from the life of Francis, and 
others portraying passages from the life of Christ, the one set 
being typically connected with the other. The two great art 
centers during the 14th century were Florence and Siena. The 
early renaissance of painting in the 15th century was inaugu¬ 
rated by Masaccio, whose masterpieces are now in Florence. In 
North Italy the most important school was the Paduan, at the 


EMINENT ARTISTS. 


253 


head of which was Mantegna (1431-1506). There was also the 
Venetian school. The renaissance of Italian painting embraces 
that period when “ exact imitation first gave place to creative 
beauty.” Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), was an architect, 
sculptor, painter, musician, engineer, and an improvisatore. 
He excelled in expression, and was great as a portrait painter. 
Michael Angelo , great in sculpture, and in architecture, was not 
less great in painting. He belongs to this period. Raphael 
Tanzio (1483-1520); as also Genulio Romano (1492-1546); Andrea 
del Sarto (1486-1530); Coreggio (1494-1534). Famous Vene¬ 
tians were Sebastian (1485-1547); Titian (1477-1573). Hubert 
(1366-1426) and Jahn Van Eyck (1370-1441) were the founders 
of the Flemish school. Rubens (1577-1640) was the leader of 
the Flemish revival, “ a consummate painter, an enlightened 
scholar, a skillful diplomatist, and an accomplished man of the 
world.” He was one of the most brilliant men of genius the 
world has ever seen. His well-known picture, “ Christ crucified 
between the two thieves ” is in Antwerp Cathedral. Sir An¬ 
thony Van Dyck (1599-1641) a native of Antwerp; second only 
to Titian as a portrait painter. Sir Peter Lely (1617-1680), 
Rembrandt (1606-1674). Albert Purer (1471-1528) founder of 
the German school. Longfellow sings of him: 

“ Hence in silence and in sorrow, toiling still with busy hand. 

Like an emigrant he wandered, seeking for the Better Land. 

Emigravit is the inscription on the tombstone where he lies; 

Dead he is not, but departed,—for the artist never dies.” 

Holbein (1499-1554). In the 17th century Spain produced two 
great artists, Velasquez (1599-1660) and Murillo (1618-1685). 
France affords us the names of Nicholas Poussin (1594-1665) 
and Clceude Lorraine (1600-1682). 

Nearly all early English painters were portrait painters. Sir 
Godfrey Kneller (1648-1723) William Hogarth (1697-1764) 
“ was to English art what Charles Dickens was to English liter¬ 
ature.” Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), Gainsborough (1727- 
1788). Benjamin West (1738-1820) was born at Springfield, 


254 


EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS. 


Penn. He is said to have taken his first lessons in painting 
from the Cherokee Indians. He was assisted to go to Italy, and 
made rapid progress in his studies at Home. An American, 
studying art, was considered something marvelous. Upon seeiug 
the Apollo Belvidere he is said to have exclaimed, “ A young 
Mohawk warrior! ” to the horror of the bystanders. “ West in¬ 
augurated a new era in historical painting by delineating his 
characters without the conventional Greek or Roman cos¬ 
tume.” He lived in London and succeeded Sir Joshua Rey¬ 
nolds as president of the Royal Academy. John Singleton Copley 
(1737-1815), also an American, who settled in England. Allan 
Ramsay (1709-1784), John Opie (1761-1807), William Blake 
(1757-1828), poet and artist, Thomas Beivick (1753-1828), Henry 
Raeburn (1756-1823), born in Scotland. Sir Thomas Lawrence 
(1769-1830), David Wilkie (1785-1841), George Cruikshanks 
(1792-1878), best known by his illustrations of Dickens and his 
temperance prints; Joseph W. W. Turner (1775-1851), whose 
genius Ruskin brought to the front; Edwin H Landseer (1802- 
1873), an eminent English animal painter. 

Among important American artists are the following: Gil¬ 
bert Stuart , born in Narragansett, R. I., 1755; died in Boston, 
1828. He painted a series of national portraits, which will for¬ 
ever endear him to the patriotic American. His renderings of 
Washington are celebrated. What is known as the “Athenaeum 
head” at Boston, with its pendant, the portrait of Mrs. Wash¬ 
ington, is the most famous. John Trumbull (1756-1843), an 
historic painter. Charles Wilson Peale (1741-1827), a portrait 
painter. He painted fourteen portraits of Washington. Joseph 
Wright (1756-1793), E. Savaqe (1761-1S17), William Dunlap 
(1766-1839), John Blake White (1782-1859), a native of Char¬ 
leston, S. C., painted historical pictures. Washington Alston 
(1779-1843), painted scripture history, portraiture, ideal heads, 
genre, landscape and marine. John Vanderlyn (1776-1852), 
is best known by his Marius on the Ruins of Carthage, for which 
he received a medal at the Paris Salon in 1808; and his Ariadne 


EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS. 


255 


which forms part of the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy. 
Samuel F. B. Morse (1791-1872), whose fame in connection 
with the electric telegraph has eclipsed that which he merits as 
an artist. Dr. Rimmer (1816-1879), of English parentage, be¬ 
gan life as a physician. William Sydney Mount (1807-1868), 
the son of a farmer on Long Island. “ No other artist has 
rivaled Mount in the delineation of the life of the American 
farmer and his negro field hands, always looked at from the 
humorous side.” Henry Inman (1801-1846) an excellent por¬ 
trait painter. The Indian tribes have been the subjects of George 
Gatlin (1796-1872) and C. F. Wimor (1829-1863). John James 
Audubon (1780-1851) the eminent naturalist, distinguished as 
an ornithological painter. William J. Hays (1830-1875) selected 
for his province the animal world of the prairies and the West. 
A large picture of his is in the Museum of Natural History of 
New York, the subject being an American Bison. Thomas Cole 
(1801-1848) takes the first place in the early history of land¬ 
scape in the United States. His picture, The Tornado , is in the 
Oorcorau gallery at Washington. I. F. Kensett (1818-1873) and 
Sandford R. Gifford (1823-1880) are prominent in the “ Hud¬ 
son River School.” John W. Hill (died 1879), is one of the first 
among the little band of American pre-Raphaelites. Among 
marine painters James Hamilton (1819-1878), who was brought 
to this country from Ireland in his infancy, stands highest. 
William Morris Hunt (1824-1879) studied in Europe and, 
amongst others, under Millet, the famous peasant painter. His 
most famous works are the original sketch for the Flight of 
Night , several portraits, and a View of Gloucester Harbor. R. 
H. Fuller , of Boston, “who died comparatively young in 1871 
had a most extraordinary career, and displayed extraordinary 
talent. Originally a cigarmaker, and later a night-watchman, 
he was almost entirely self taught, his studies consisting in care¬ 
fully looking at the French landscapes on view at the stores, and 
then attempting to reproduce them at home. The knowledge 
thus gained he applied to the rendering of American landscapes. 


256 


EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS. 


and he had so assimilated the methods of his French exemplars 
that his creations, while they often betrayed by what master 
they had been inspired, were yet thoroughly American,” 

Some American artists of the day are William H. Beard , 
who was born in Painesville, Ohio, in 1825. He is to a great 
extent self-taught. He is a member of the National Academy, 
and is best known for his rendering of animal life. Alfred T. 
Bellows was born at Milford, Mass., and began life in an archi¬ 
tect's office. He abandoned his profession at the age of 21, and 
studied several years at the Royal Academy of Antwerp. Mr. 
Bellows is one of the most successful water-color painters of the 
age. Robert Swain Gifford is a landscape and marine painter. 
He was born about half a century ago at Naushau, an island in 
Buzzard's Bay, Mass. William M. Chase is a native of the 
state of Indiana. He studied at Munich, the capital of Bavaria. 
John J. Enneking was born in Minster, Ohio, in 1841; is the son 
of a farmer of German descent. He fought in the civil war. 
He paints landscape, and has been successful in drawing and 
painting the figure from living models. His residence is at the 
village of Hyde Park, near Boston. Thomas H. Wood saw the 
light at Montpelier, Vermont. He is a successful genre artist. 
Genre is a word borrowed from the French, and means people. 
The term is applied in art to simple domestic scenes, including 
one or more figures suggested by every-day life, as distin¬ 
guished from elaborate pictures of fashionable life or of history. 
Samuel Colman was born in Portland, Maine. In 1866, having 
previously been made an academician, he was elected president 
of the American Water Color Society. One of his most success¬ 
ful works is a painting of Gibraltar. Wordsworth Thomson hails 
from Maryland. He has shown originality and strength in his¬ 
torical compositions, and fairly earned a place beside Trumbull. 
David Neal was born in Lowell, Mass., in 1838. He is best 
known by his painting, “The First Meeting of Mary Stuart and 
Rizzio.'' He has established his reputation in Europe as well as 
in this country. He resides at Munich, Bavaria, with his 
family. 


SCULPTUKE. 


257 


Sculpture is tha art of expressing ideas or images in solid 
material. It was practiced by all the great nations of antiquity, 
and in Greece attained a perfection which has never been sur¬ 
passed. Even the Moses of Michael Angelo is a Grecian god, 
and the Greek slave a copy of an ancient Venus. India and 
Mexico in remote ages were great in sculpture. The earliest 
names of sculptors are furnished by the Old Testament. Assy¬ 
ria and Egypt are full of relics to show how early this art was 
cultivated. It was not carried to perfection as early, probably, 
as architecture; but rude images of gods, carved in wood, are as 
old as the history of idolatry. 

After the year 600 B.c., schools of sculpture grew rapidly at 
Corinth, Egina, Sicyon (Greece). The Egina marbles were 
discovered in 1812. They are now at Munich, Bavaria, and there 
are casts in the British Museum. Beauty was adored in Greece, 
and every means was taken to perfect it, especially in form, 
which is the characteristic excellence of Grecian statuary. 
Phidias, born 484 b.c., stands at the head of ancient sculptors. 
He had intrusted to him the adornment of the Parthenon, and 
his great statue of Minerva cost alone $500,000. His, too, was 
the statue of Jupiter in the temple at Olympia, which was forty 
feet high on a pedestal of twenty feet. The god was seated on 
a throne, composed of ebony, gold, ivory and precious stones. 
Praxiteles wrought in bronze and marble. He was one of the 
artists who adorned the mausoleum of Artemisia. His most 
famous work was an undraped statue of Venus, to see which, 
people flocked from all parts of Greece. The “ Venus de 
Medici ” is conjectured to be a copy from him. He is said to 
have been the first to represent the female figure quite nude. 
Scopas was the author of the famous “ Niobe group,” now at 
Florence; Agasias, of the “ Fighting Gladiator;” Chares, of the 
“ Colossus at Rhodes;” Athenadorus, of the “ Laocoon;” Glycon, 
of the “Farnese Hercules.” The Grecian artists also carved 
animals with accuracy and beauty. Nicias was famous for his 
dogs; Myron, for his cows, and Lysippus, far his horses. Praxi- 
17 


258 


SCULPTURE. 


teles composed his celebrated lion after a living animal. Regard¬ 
ing the Elgin Marbles, the great authority Flaxman says, “ The 
horses of the frieze seem to live and move; to roll their eyes, to 
gallop, prance, and curvet; the veins of their faces and legs seem 
distended with circulation. The beholder is charmed with the 
deer-like lightness and elegance of their make; and although 
the relief is not above an inch from the back ground, and they 
are so much smaller than nature, we can scarcely suffer nature 
to persuade us they are not alive.” The Greeks also carved gems, 
cameos, medals, and vases, and the few that have come down to 
us display great beauty, both in design and execution. 

The Romans did not create a school of sculpture. But, 
although they imitated the Greeks, their work was of the highest 
kind, especially in the time of Hadrian. The busts of the 
emperors were in every city, and Rome was filled with statues. 
Even in the sixth century, after Rome had been sacked and 
plundered by the Goths, a traveler gives this description of it. 
He says there were eighty golden statues of the gods; eighty 
large ivory statues of the gods; 1,797 palaces; 1,352 fountains; 
3,785 bronze statues of emperors and generals; twenty-two great 
horses in bronze; two colossi; two spiral columns; thirty-one 
theaters; eleven amphitheaters; 9,026 baths. There was a long 
period during which art slumbered, and, indeed, might be said 
to be dead; but it began to revive as early as the tenth century, 
and the sixteenth century gave birth to Michael Angelo, a name 
almost as familiar as that of Shakespeare. Cibber, who sculpt¬ 
ured in England, was a Dane; Thorwaldsen, a native of Iceland; 
Canova, an Italian. Flaxman's finest work was the Wellington 
Shield, after the Homeric description of Achilles. Much fine 
sculpture has come down to us, some of which has been referred 
to. The museum of the Vatican at Rome alone, contains several 
thousands of specimens. Among them are antique copies of the 
Cupid and Fawn of Praxiteles, the statue of Demosthenes, the 
Minerva Medici, The Athlete of Lysippus, the Torso Belvidere of 
Appolonius, the Belvidere Antinous, the Laocoon, the Apollo 
Belvidere, the Sleepy Ariadne . 


SCULPTURE. 


259 


Michael Angelo (1474-1563) opened up an undreamt of future 
for his favorite art of sculpture. The work which first showed 
the true impress of his genius was his colossal marble statue of 
David, completed in 1501. His colossal statue of Moses, 
designed for the mausoleum of Pope Julius II. is a masterpiece, 
and his monuments to the Medicis in St. Lorenzo at Florence 
are always quoted amongst his greatest achievements. Nurem- 
burg was the Florence of German sculpture. Michael Wolge- 
muth (1434-1519) and Albert Durer (1471-1528), both eminent 
painters, were skilled in wood-carving. Sculpture developed 
later their wood-carving, but in the same direction. The great¬ 
est master of stone sculpture in Germany was Adam Krafft 
(1430-1507), a native of Nuremburg. Prior to the revolution, 
excepting in the carving of figureheads, sculpture was unknown 
in the United States. In 1816 John Trumbull said to Frazee: 
“ Sculpture would not be wanted here for a hundred years.” In 
1824, however, the first portrait in marble was executed by John 
Frazee, a stone-cutter. In 1805 Hiram Powers was born, one of 
the best known sculptors of the century, and in the same year 
Horatio Greenough ; Hart, 1810; Clevenger, 1812; Crawford, 1813; 
Mills, 1815; all sculptors of note, and important as pioneers in art. 
Powers and Crawford, without the advantages of those living 
amid the wealth of art of all the ages, yet succeeded in gaining 
a European renown. Powers was a farmer's boy of the Green 
Mountains. His Greek Slave, Penseroso, Fisher Boy, and Pros - 
ermine, are amongst his most successful achievements. James 
Hart, who, died at Florence in 1879, was born in Kentucky at the 
beginning of the century. His education was confined to three 
months at the district school. Angelina and Woman's Triumph 
are two of his prominent works. Clevenger was an Ohio stone¬ 
cutter. Thomas Crawford , a native of New York, has genius. 
His art is at once grand and sympathetic. Among his most 
important efforts are the equestrian statue of Washington at 
Richmond, and the colossal statue of Beethoven in the Music 
Hall at Boston. He executed the bronze door of the capitol at 


260 


SCULPTURE. 


Washington, and his is the graceful statue of “Liberty ” on its 
dome. Clark Mills produced the equestrian statue of General 
Jackson opposite the White House, and that of General Wash¬ 
ington, for which he received $50,000. He is remarkable for 
dexterity and talent rather than for genius. 

Henry K. Browne , one of our earliest sculptors, executed the 
equestrian statue of Washington, in Union Square, New York, 
and that of General Scott at Washington. Thomas Ball, origi¬ 
nally a portrait painter, has done good work. His equestrian 
statue of Washington, in the Public Garden at Boston, is one 
of the finest in the country. I. Q. A. Ward’s colossal bronze 
statue (equestrian) of General Thomas, marks him out as one of 
the most vigorous and individual sculptors of the age. His 
bronze statue of Washington at Newburyport is one of the most 
valuable productions in American sculpture. Benjamin Paul 
Akers , of Portland, died before attaining the maturity of his 
powers. His “ Pearl Diver " and “ St. Elizabeth " are exquisite 
works of art. The former and also his ideal bust of Milton are 
described by Hawthorne in the “ Marble Faun." In that 
romance the young sculptor Kenyon is Akers. Edward S. Bar¬ 
tholomew of Connecticut died at the age of 36. Eve Repentant , 
Ganymede , and Hagar and Ishmael live to tell what he was, and 
to indicate what he might have become. Larken J. Meade is 
the sculptor of the monument to Abraham Lincoln at Springfield, 
Ill. It is of colossal dimensions and cost nearly $300,000. 
In size and importance it ranks next to the magnificent monu¬ 
ment at Plymouth designed by Hammatt Billings . 

Franklin Simmons designed the monument to the army and 
navy at Washington. One of his best works is the statue of 
Roger Williams. William W. Story was originally a lawyer. 
Having ample means he devoted himself to poetry, the drama, 
and general literature, and has succeeded in sculpture to a degree 
which has caused a leading London journal to call him the first 
sculptor of the Anglo-Saxon race since the death of Gibson. 

Miss Hosmer has achieved a fame scarcely less than that of 


SCULPTURE. 


261 


Story. Her best known works are “ Puck,” “ The Sleeping 
Sentinel,” “The Sleeping Faun,” and “Zenobia.” Erastus D. 
Palmer has won transatlantic fame by the purity and originality 
of his art. The son of a farmer, he was a carpenter until the 
age of 30, when he followed the bent of his genius. Launt 
Thomson was a poor lad, who became assistant to Palmer and 
acquired supreme skill in modelling. His chef d’oeuvres are 
“ Napoleon,” “ Edwin Booth,” “General Sedgwick” at West 
Point, “ President Pierson ” at Yale College. 

John Rogers is more widely known throughout the country 
than any of our sculptors by his numerous statuette groups in 
clay. Other notable American sculptors are Daniel C. French , 
W. R. O’Donovan, Olin M . Warner, Howard Roberts and J . 8. 
Hartley . 



CHAPTER XXIII. 


ARCHITECTURE —LANDSCAPE GARDENING, 
ETC, ETC. 



RCHITECTURE is divisible into civil, military and 
naval, but as a fine art it is limited to the first. The 
German philosopher, Schlegel, called architecture 
“frozen music,” which points to the fact that it con - 
tains an idea, or embodies a conception. As a fine 
art, it is not merely so much material symmetrically 
constructed. The Greek Temple, for example, 
embodied the conception of all pervading deity ; the 
Gothic cathedral shadowed forth human aspirations 
after a personal God. The basilicas, amphitheaters 
and triumphal arches of Rome sprang from a national 
desire for terrestrial power and material aggrandise¬ 
ment. Climate is an important factor in determining the archi¬ 
tecture of a people, and, generally, it may be said that the more 
widely two nations differ in their characteristics and circum¬ 
stances, the greater will be the divergence in the main features 
of their architecture. Thus, again, the more definite, deep and 
comprehensive the thought to be expressed, the greater will be 
the richness, variety and precision of the expression. 

Different styles of architecture have been the result of 
national ideas and aspirations, and it is on this account that a 
mixture or compound of styles in a building, such as, say the 
Greek, Gothic and Egyptian, is characterless and incongruous, 
suggesting a medley of widely different kinds of music, or a 
jumble of a number of languages. Whatever claims to be the 
outcome of thought should be consistent and harmonious. Art 


























































































































































































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ARCHITECTURE. 


263 


found its first development in temples erected for the worship of 
God. Architecture thus was the expression of devotional feel¬ 
ing. In India, Egypt, Greece and Italy, the various temples 
originated in blended superstition and devotion. The edifice 
erected for religious worship reached its culminating height of 
beauty and grandeur, after the Crusades, in the Gothic piles of 
Cologne and Westminster. The architecture of Egypt produced 
its overwhelming effect by the vast proportion of its public 
buildings. There was no attempt at graceful embellishments. 
Its design was to awe and astonish the people. There was an 
idea of everlastingness about their erections. The temple must 
have seemed to the gazer to be 

“ The changeless God’s eternal fane.” 

The Pyramids have outlasted all other monuments. The ruins 
of Thebes surpass all others in extent and majesty. Architect¬ 
ure, however, as the expression of genius and civilization, was 
perfected by the Greeks. The Doric was the favorite order of 
European Greece and her colonies for a thousand years. The 
Parthenon at Athens, and the Temple of Theseus exhibited its 
perfection. Nearly coeval with the Doric was the Ionic order, 
invented by the Asiatic Greeks, more graceful, but not so impos¬ 
ing as the Doric. The Athenian Acropolis is a perfect example 
of this order. The Corinthian excels the Doric and Ionic in 
refinement and elegance. It arose towards the end of the 
Peloponnesian war. Of this order the most famous temple in 
Greece was that of Minerva at Tegea, destroyed by fire 400 b.c. 
The Romans adopted the Corinthian style, which they made even 
more ornamental, and by the successful combination of the 
Etruscan arch and the Grecian column, laid the foundation of a 
now and original style. The Romans, however, invented no new 
principle in architecture, except the arch. The Gothic, or 
Pointed, or Christian architecture, was the creation of the 
middle ages. No new principle in architecture has been discov¬ 
ered by the modern world. The ancients are still, and will 
remain, our school-masters. The greatest evidence of the 


264 


ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. 


matchless creative genius displayed in those architectural 
wonders is that, after two thousand years, and with all the inven¬ 
tions of Roman and modern artists, no improvement can be 
made, and those edifices which are the admiration of our own 
times, are deemed beautiful as they approximate to the ancient 
models, which will forever remain objects of imitation. 

MARVELS OF ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. 

Temple of Carnach. —Egypt. Built of blocks of stone 70 
feet in length, on a platform 1,000 feet long, and 300 wide, with 
pillars 60 feet high. The alley was 6,000 feet long. Alleys of 
colossal sphynxes form the approach. 

Pyramid of Cheops. —A solid mass of stone. To build it 
100,000 men worked for 40 years. It covers a square the side of 
which is 768 feet. Height, 452 feet. 

Temple of Solomon. —Built probably by Phoenician artists. 
It had great splendor of decoration. It was not remarkable for 
greatness of size, and resembled the oldest Greek temples. The 
portico of the temple, in the time of Herod, was 180 feet high, 
and the temple itself was entered by nine gates thickly coated 
with silver and gold. 

The Parthenon , at Athens, was built of Pentelic marble, and 
rested on a basis of limestone. It was 227 feet in length, 101 
in breadth, 65 feet in height, surrounded with 48 fluted columns. 
It was adorned with the choicest sculptures of Phidias, the 
grandest of which was a colossal statue of Minerva, 40 feet in 
height, and composed of gold and ivory. The inner walls were 
decorated with paintings. The Parthenon, the most beautiful 
specimen of the Doric, has never been equaled. It still stands 
in ruins. 

The Acropolis , at Athens, is. a perfect example of the Ionic 
order. 

Temple of Diana , at Ephesus. One of the seven wonders of 
the world. 

The Pantheon, Rome. The columns are 42 feet high, each 
hewn out of a single block of Eastern marble. In 27, b.c.. 








































































































































































































. 


ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. 


265 


after the battle of Aetium, it was dedicated to all the gods; hence 
the name Pantheon . Statues of these in gold, silver and bronze 
were placed in it. 

Arch of Septimus Sever us, Rome, erected 203 a.d. The 
“Arc du Carrousel,” Paris, is a copy of this. 

The Colosseum, Rome, covered 65,000 square feet. Its arena, 
which was oval, measured in length 260 feet, and width 150. 

Trajan’s Column, Rome, was entirely revealed in 1813. Its 
shaft is encircled by an endless scroll from the bottom to the top, 
on which are sculptured 2,500 figures of soldiers, prisoners, 
horses, elephants, weapons and war material. A statue of the 
conqueror crowns the column. 

The Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople, was built by Con¬ 
stantine ; burnt 532 a.d. ; rebuilt by Justinian, who said, refer¬ 
ring to the temple of Jerusalem, “ Solomon, I have surpassed 
thee.” Nothing can surpass the majesty of its porticoes, in the 
Corinthian capitals of which, animals, allegorical figures and 
crosses are interlaced among the leaves. 

The Alhambra, Spain. Built by the Arabs, one of the 
greatest architectural marvels. 

Mosque of Cordova, Spain. Built by Arabs, was to them 
what St. Sophia was to the Byzantines, and St. Peter’s to the 
early Christians. 

Famous cathedrals on the continent of Europe are those of 
Amiens, Spires, Chartres, Bourges, Rheims, Milan, Maus, 
Strasburg. In England, Chester, Ely, Salisbury. In Scotland, 
St. Andrew’s. 

St. Peters, Rome. First stone laid, 1506. Exterior length, 
712 feet. Width of great nave, 88 feet. Dome, 137 feet in inter¬ 
ior diameter. Pillars supporting the dome 70 feet in thickness. 

Westminster Abbey, London, where the dust of England’s 
greatest warriors, statesmen, philosophers, poets, men of letters, 
etc., repose. A venerable and beautiful pile visited by throngs 
of strangers. 

Gallery of Francis /. at Fontainebleau, France, 

The Louvre , Paris, * 


266 


LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 


Landscape Gardening is justly numbered among the fine arts. 
In this country, with its passionate love of flowers, its magnifi¬ 
cent spaces, and its varied climate and soil, great progress has 
been made in the art of laying out grounds with an eye to the 
beautiful and pleasing. In the friendly rivalry between commu¬ 
nities m this regard, Chicago may well be proud of her appela- 
tion, “ The City of Gardens.” Public parks and the gardens of 
the wealthy, connected with their residences, afford scope for 
the exercise and development of this fine art. 

One of the most essential features to be studied in landscape¬ 
gardening is harmony of effect. The eye will often rest with 
instinctive pleasure on a scene, where nothing striking in figure 
or brilliant in color compels the attention. Everything should 
be proportionate with a central design, or idea, to the realizing 
of which the parts should be subordinated, as in the painting of 
an artist. The surroundings should be carefully studied so that 
they may add to the general effect. Contrast may be very suc¬ 
cessfully employed. In a prairie country, for example, terraces 
and mounds might be introduced with a pleasing result. Where 
the natural scenery around is tame, a certain irregularity of 
design attracts and relieves the eye, especially when the Horatian 
dictum, (( ars celare artem ”—the art of concealing art — is 
observed. Water in the artificial- lake or cascade, is seldom 
introduced with success; but the fountain, with its splashing 
drops, often lends an additional charm. A very great deal may 
be done in the arranging of trees and shrubs. 

The landscape-gardener of olden times revelled in the trim 
porterre, with its geometric forms, close-clipped hedges, terraces, 
mounds,artificial lakes,streams and hills. The topiarian art,which 
dates back to the Augustan age of Rome, or shortly before the 
beginning of the Christian era, delighted in clipping out trees 
and shrubs into fantastic shapes, such as the figures of animals, 
vases and the like, but modern landscape-gardening discards all 
this. Like the other fine arts, its tendency now is rather towards 
the natural and realistic. In Europe gardens may still be met with 


the art of dressing. 


267 


where the topiarius or pleacher has held sway, with beds laid out 
like mosaic, reminding one of the samplers of our great-grand¬ 
mothers. 

The geometric style is that in which regular forms prevail; 
and the opposite, from having been originated and first exten¬ 
sively practiced in England, is known as the English . On the 
continent of Europe, a pleasure-ground laid out with winding 
and irregular walks and scattered trees, or groups of trees and 
shrubs, is called an English Garden. In addition to floral effects, 
very beautiful harmonies are now produced by the artistic com¬ 
bination of ornamental leaf-plants of graduated shades. Many 
of these belong to the nettle tribe and are the result of scientfic 
cultivation. 

COSTUME — THE ART OF DRESSING. 

That the art of dressing should be considered a fine art may, 
to some people, seem extraordinary. The philosopher Carlyle 
had the idea that the best way to end the difficult question of 
clothes would be that people should go about in suits of leather. 
No doubt his plan, if adopted, would answer some purposes of 
dress; but, rightly or wrongly, for any length of time, human 
beings have passed the mere purpose of keeping themselves 
free from cold, or serving by garments any primitive purpose of 
covering. Just as the mere rude hut, or building, passed into 
the temple, so the skin or blanket of the savage became shaped 
and colored, with a view, perhaps, rather to the setting off of 
the charms or proportions of the wearer, than with, at least, a 
chief regard to mere comfort or utility. ‘ So, obviously, costume 
emerged from the ranks of the practical arts, and took its stand 
alongside of architecture, sculpture, painting and music, as a 
fine art. 

In the absence of manufactured articles, savage tribes in all 
countries are, and have been, in the habit of attiring themselves 
in such rude materials as nature has placed within their reach. 
The Indian, with whom we are more or less acquainted, clothed 
himself in skins on which the fur was left, or in a blanket procured 


m 


THE ART OF DRESSING. 


in trade. His legs and feet he dressed in moccasins; but even he 
attempted to adorn himself with paint and feathers. In some 
of the islands of the Pacific, as also till lately in New Zealand, 
the inhabitants tattoo the surface of the body by puncturing it 
with an instrument, and inserting colored juices in the wound. 
Such, also, was the practice and fashion of the original inhab¬ 
itants of the British Islands. To almost all fashions in the per¬ 
sonal adornment of the body the old Latin saying is peculiarly 
applicable, de gustibus non est disputandum , “ There is no good 
disputing about tastes.” Perhaps it may be well to say that 
men mostly desire by their dress to make themselves more dis¬ 
tinguished ; women, on the other hand, wish to become more 
lovely and therefore attractive. 

Climate has, of course, a great deal to do both with the color 
and form of dress. Throughout Asia, in North Africa, and in 
Turkey, the dress is generally of a loose and flowing form. The 
more sunshine there is in the air, the brighter the colors in dress 
seem to grow; at the same time white , for easily understood 
reasons, is always common in warmer countries. The turban 
of the Turk may seem to us at first sight a cumbrous and 
unsightly head-dress, but yet there is reason in it. The folds 
protect the head from the rays of the sun. 

The dress of the modern Greek is a mixture of Eastern and 
European costumes, with little to mark the classical origin of 
the people. The chief article of attire of the poorer Greek is a 
capote , or large woolen garment with a hood, shaggy, with short 
threads of yarn ; it is heavy when dry, but nearly insupportable 
when wet; it is serviceable for home and bed to the wandering 
Greek as the bunda is to the Hungarian shepherd, and it is a 
perfect defense against cold and dew. All but the poor classes 
of Greek, however, dress showily, and even a servant will spend 
every farthing of his wages on fine clothes. We know better 
than that, and think rather of our character than our clothes. 
The unenlightened Greeks ! The young Greeks are the hand¬ 
somest race in Europe; their long hair falls over their shoulders 


THE ART OF DRESSING. 


269 


from under the cap ; their embroidered jackets, vests and 
buskins; their arms mounted with silver, and even jewels, and 
their white kilts, compose, on the whole, one of the most grace¬ 
ful and becoming costumes in the world. The costume of the 
Greek female more closely resembles that of the Turks. She 
wears loose trousers of fine calico, embroidered with flowers, a 
closely fitting vest, a jeweled zone about the waist, and a long- 
sleeved gown, flowing off loosely behind, or a veil covering the 
body ; and sometimes a rich pelisse trimmed with fur. The young 
women often dye their hair auburn, and the old ladies red, with 
which color the nails are also tinged. The females walk abroad 
in a robe of red or blue cloth and an ample muslin veil. 

The costume of America is, after all, merely a modification 
of the dress of other countries and other ages. In nothing, per¬ 
haps, dare originality be displayed so little as in costumes. Not 
even theology is so hedged in with difficulties. Custom, in this 
respect, weighs upon men and women, 

“ Heavy as frost and deep almost as life.” 

This, at least, on a dangerous subject may be said, that, 
mainly, the dress of this country should be adapted to an active, 
city-dwelling, hard-working people. Some nations, concerning 
flowing or classical costume, are fancied rather than rational. 
If there be anything in “ the human form divine,” the less that 
any costume clogs and cumbers, and conceals it—consistently 
with decorum and comfort—the more becoming must it, in any 
well formed person, be. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS ABOUT DRESS. 

The Florentines drew up a series of sumptuary laws in 1415, 
directed against the luxury and splendor of women’s dress and 
of marriage festivals. They declared that such magnificence 
was opposed to all republican laws and usages, and only served 
to enervate and corrupt the people. If a citizen of Florence 
wished to give an entertainment in honor of a guest, he was 
obliged to obtain a permit from the Priors of Liberty, for 


270 


LAWS ABOUT DRESS. 


which ne paid ten golden florins, and had also to swear that 
such splendor was only exhibited for the honor and glory of the 
city. Whoever transgressed this law was fined twenty-five 
golden florins. It was considered shameful to have much plate; 
nearly all household implements were of brass, now and then 
beautified by having the arms of the family in enamel upon them. 
These sumptuary laws were not confined to Florence. The 
town of Pistoja enacted similar ones in 1322; Perugia in 1333. 
Phillipe le Bel promulgated sumptuary laws in France in 1310; 
Charles the Ninth in 1575; and Louis the Thirteenth in 1614; 
but with no greater success than the worthy old republicans. 

THE SEALSKIH JACKET. 

Probably not one lady in a thousand who wears a sealskin 
jacket has the vaguest idea of its origin, its history, or of its 
original owner. Still less probably can she imagine of what 
wild scenes and marvelous natural phenomena that much-prized 
fur is the outcome. The resorts of the fur seal are now confined 
exclusively to the Alaskan region, and even there to the two 
small islands forming the Pribylov group, lying far out in the 
stormy Behring Sea. In former days these valuable pinnipeds 
were also found in teeming myriads in the Antarctic seas, but 
the ruthless greed and short-sighted avarice of competing nation¬ 
alities have virtually extirpated the race in these waters. 
Nowhere else, therefore, in the wide world can a fur-loving 
civilization look for its supplies than to these two small islands 
far away in the North Pacific. 


CHAPTER XXIV. 


A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 


X this age of progress there have been busy and able 
minds working in a direction, clearing a path, as it 
were, down which in fancy we can all pleasantly 
stroll, making by-ways as we go, and, whilst we amuse 
and refresh ourselves, we can easily gain valuable 
instruction, The study of words has always had 
an interest for many who would not like to call 
themselves scholars. There is a kind of instinctive 
desire to know not only what a word means, but 
where it comes from; we want to know what a 
W word’s history has been, and what are its connec- 

* tions. There is a great deal of character, of indi¬ 

viduality, about certain words, and their study becomes 
fascinating and profitable. Once get started and you are 
carried right along, enriching your collection all the way. You 
place your specimens in the cabinet of the mind, and can take 
them out and examine them just when you please. Collectors 
of curiosities have a story to tell in connection with each of 
their treasures, and so has the student of words, the story often 
being not only entertaining but instructive. The triumphs of 
philology during the present century are known to the readers 
of such writers as Max Muller. Science has accomplished 
marvels in modern times, and the science of language can boast 
of magnificent achievements. 

That a language should be completely lost and after thousands 
of years the key to it be found is surely a marvelous thing. The 
result is modern Egyptology, with its extraordinary elucidation of 

271 












A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 


m 

ancient history. What could be more interesting and surprising, 
again, than that scholars should, by means of philological 
research, be enabled to undo the confusion of tongues, which 
we associate with Babel, and take us away back through num¬ 
berless centuries to the dwellers on the plains of Asia, from 
whom we are all alike descended, tell us how they lived, what 
they thought, and what they did. We used to think we needed 
a written history to inform us about these things and we call 
Herodotus the father of history. We fancied that farther back 
than the Bible historically takes us we could not hope to travel, 
but now by means of language alone, the philologist conducts 
us leagues farther into primeval times. 

Out of the triumphs of science in this direction, an increased 
sense has developed itself, among the educated, of the value 
and even the sanctity of words. A dead language may be an 
appropriate enough name for one that is no longer spoken, but 
in the sense that history is living, containing as it does thought 
and experience, so is language ever. Words afford a wonderful 
clew to the character of those who use them. Humanity stamps 
its individuality upon its creations In the various arts, for 
example, there are inread intellectual and moral qualities. Thus 
we have pagan, Christian and national art. Most people use 
words very much as they do coppers or nickels, the only differ¬ 
ence being that they take considerable care of the latter, and are 
particular as to whether they are good or bad. 

That a word is a living thing and can be helped or injured 
they do not for a moment imagine. No one in his senses will, 
without occasion, give a dollar for a dime, but in the use of 
language what magnificent terms are constantly thrown away 
on the most trivial matter. Then again words are powerful 
things. They frequently mislead men woefully. It is a well 
established fact that more famous controversies have arisen 
from misunderstandings as to words or terms than from any 
other cause. Bacon says, “men often fancy they are using 
words when words are using them.” Sometimes the employ- 


A PHILOLOGICAL BAMBLE. 


273 


ment of the polysyllabic jaw-breaker is the result of affectation 
or weakness, as in the case of the colored brother, and becomes 
amusing. Everyone has chanced on a Mrs. Partington or 
Malaprop. Some time ago an ancient guide conducting the 
writer over the castle of St. Andrew’s, in Scotland, remarked: 
“ I see that thae Americans hae procrastinated aniter storm.” 
He meant, of course, prognosticated. A more staggering mis¬ 
take was made by a gentleman who ought to have known better. 
It was at a sheltered watering place, with which he was greatly 
taken. “I’ll get my father to come here for a spell,” he said. 
“Don’t you think,” it was suggested, “that the climate is rather 
relaxing.” “Oh, well,”he replied, “my father has been work¬ 
ing too hard and requires some relaxation ! ” He was quite in 
earnest. 

It is very desirable, certainly, to be acquainted with foreign 
languages, but after all, the truest test of culture is in the use 
of one’s own. We cannot withhold a certain feeling of respect 
from him or her whose conversation shows a familiarity with 
and nice appreciation of the choice society of words to be found 
in the English tongue. If we take a short ramble into the realms 
of words, we shall find that they are unmistakably living beings. 
They will speak to us, and tell us strange stories. Now we shall 
find a once notable character sitting, like blind Bartimaeus, by 
the wayside begging, and another who was once a Cinderella in 
the kitchen, playing princess in Mayfair. There are Dick 
Whittingtons- to chance on. Lady Clares, Cardinal Wolseys, 
Jack Falstaffs, Nell Gwynnes, and a thousand others, from the 
king on the throne to the beggar on the dunghill, from the hys¬ 
sop on the wall to the cedar on Lebanon. 

Royal fathers once called their daughters ice aches, and their 
sons knaves . Queen meant, to begin with, simply a woman or 

wife. Dunce was a great logician in the Middle Ages. A min¬ 
ister was a servant, now he is often greater than the magistrate 
or the master. Trump and triumph had the same father, but 
have gone different ways. The one is winning a battle while 
18 


274 


A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 


the other is taking a trick. Still, trump is a good fellow which 
triumph frequently is not. Court had once to do with cattle, 
hut now associates with royalty. Virtue once was not much 
more than manly; now it would be difficult to exhaust the 
depths of sublimity of its character. Solemn meant originally, 
“once a year.” It was applied to annual celebrations. It 
attained its present dignity by remembering that familiarity 
breeds contempt. Even earthquakes would cease to solemnize 
if they occurred every day. A word which has an exceedingly 
unfortunate history is the once beautiful charity. She was 
adopted from the Greek by Christianity. The word originally 
signified that higher affection or love which is above mere 
passion or appetite, and is founded on admiration and esteem. 
Charity was a virtue deliberately cultivated by the Greeks and 
formed an almost indestructible bond of the noblest affection. 
Damon and Pythias had charity for each other. Christianity 
invested the term with an intensity of meaning. The classic 
marble, as in the fable, breathed the breath of life. Charity 
became “chief among the blessed three,” and according to St. 
Peter “ covered a multitude of sins.” She united in the brother¬ 
hood of Christ all to each, and each to all; put the hand of 
the weakest in that of the strongest. As time wore on, helpful¬ 
ness, which is one characteristic of charity, came more and more 
strongly out. 

Material helpfulness, naturally, the easiest, became empha¬ 
sized. That which was bestowed out of charity came to be called 
charity—until the copper given to the unfortunate begger goes 
by the name. She who might have been port rayed as exquisitely 
beautiful, with the sweet light of heaven in her eyes and flow¬ 
ing grace in all her mien, is now degraded to the condition of a 
poor-house child. Who would not once have loved to be an 
object of charity but who would be so now: exuno disce multa. 
Such is the abbreviated history of a word now even ejected 
from the Bible, and yet most people fancy that single words can 
teach them nothing. Cunning, wit, artifice, craft, haci all once 


A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 


275 


a noble meaning. Many words point to the fact that refine¬ 
ment and mannerliness belonged in old times chiefly to cities 
and towns, in contradistinction to the country. Steam and 
electricity have changed all that. To remain civilized indeed, 
one must at least occasionally get away from the crowd. Civil 
is from civis a citizen; polite, from polls, a city; urban, from 
urbs a town. On the other hand, villain, clown, boor, signi¬ 
fied once simply a countryman or rustic. A pagan was simply a 
villager, but the cities had adopted Christianity, whilst the 
villages still remained in heathen darkness, and so pagan 
became synonymous with heathen. Blackguard, has an inter¬ 
esting history. In olden times, when kings and such like 
moved from place to place, they had to take their cooks, dishes, 
pots and pans with them. Utensils were not so cheap or plenti¬ 
ful as they are now. The kitchen brought up the rear of 
princely equipages and was called the “blackguard.” It was 
easy to transfer the word to the province of morals and now the 
blackguard is to be found as often in the van as in the rear of 
the social march. 

Even royal blackguards have not been unknown. Here is a 
subject for the artist — the blackguard of the sixteenth century 
and the blackguard of to-day. In the use of words the employ¬ 
ment of needless superlatives is to be deprecated, and is gener¬ 
ally indicative of a frivolous, if not of an uncultured mind. Any 
fashion in that direction is more honored in the breach than in the 
observance. After all, “what can be quite too awfully pretty?” 
In regard to the use of oaths, the teaching of a distinguished 
professor of moral philosophy used to be, that the habit points 
to the want of culture. He argued that those addicted to 
objectionable expletives are really unable to express their 
emotions in any other way. An educated man, a gentleman, has 
many resources in the way of language, but the swearer has not. 
The oath is his safety valve, and he is after all no more than 
very vulgar, and more to be pitied than blamed. This view of 
the matter it may be incidentally remarked, had great effect on 


276 


A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 


the professor’s class, and cured many students of an objection¬ 
able habit. To be told that swearing was sinful did not affect 
them in the least, but to learn that it was an indication of vul¬ 
garity was a much more serious affair. Everyone has noticed 
the efforts of people after gentility and position, in their desig¬ 
nations of themselves. Gentleman, lady, esquire, professor, ton- 
sorial artist, lavatorian, and other words indicate the tendency. 
With the lady in “ Dombey and Son ” pulling on her old black 
gloves, their sentiment is, “let us be genteel or die.” A certain 
ragman even, feeling the impulse, designated himself “ dealer 
in dilapidated dry goods.” The consequence of this tendency, 
however, is not to lift people up, but to drag words down. 
Certain corruptions of language form an amusing chapter in 
philology. Max Muller gives a number of instances in con¬ 
nection with the signs of taverns: Thus, at Stoken Church Hill, 
in England, there is a sign exhibiting a plum and feathers. The 
house is known as the “ Plum and Feathers.” This is a travesty 
of the Prince of Wales’ crest of a plume of feathers. So a cat 
and a wheel is St. Catherine’s wheel. The goat and compass is a 
corruption of the motto “ God encompasseth us.” “Bull and 
gate” is Boulogne gate. Brasenose, Oxford, and the college 
exhibits an actual nose of brass,—is from “brasenhuis” or 
brewhouse. In the same way the sailors convert the unintelligi¬ 
ble Bellerophon into “bully ruffian,” which is within their 
comprehension. The word barnacle has made a considerable 
figure in its day. There is the barnacle goose and the barnacle 
shell-fish. The belief became prevalent from the name of the goose 
and shell-fish being the same, and from a certain resemblance of 
the latter to an embryo bird, that the barnacle goose sprang from 
the barnacle shell-fish; ergo it was not flesh, but fish, and con¬ 
sequently an orthodox dish on Fridays. The barnacle goose 
became a great favorite on the monks’ tables. Credible witnesses 
were not wanting who had witnessed the metamorphosis of the * 
fish into the bird. With their own eyes they had seen the bird 
come from the shell right up out of the water. A papal bull 


A PHILOLOGICAL RAMBLE. 


m 


was launched against this belief, superstition, heresy or what¬ 
ever it might be called, but even the bull was not strong enough 
for the goose. It still made its appearance on Friday's table. 
Now, the barnacle goose was so named because it is the Irish 
goose — a good honest goose of flesh, which was converted 
into fish only by a kind of Irish bull. Its Latin name is 
“ Anser hibernicula," By natural steps, well known to the 
philologist, hibernicula became bernicula, and so on to bar¬ 
nacle. In the case of the barnacle shell-fish, the shell has in 
shape some resemblance to a leg of pork, for which the Latin is 
perna. A little leg of pork is pernicula , and this word was 
applied to the shell-fish. It by and by, just as naturally as the 
other, became barnacle, the consequence being that the life of 
many a goose was shortened, and barnacle begot a couple of 
bulls. 




CHAPTER XXV, 


LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


HE English, though a composite language, is derived 
mainly from the Anglo-Saxon. The classic lan¬ 
guages, Greek and Latin, and their modern repre¬ 
sentatives, the French, Italian and Spanish, have con¬ 
tributed largely, but Anglo-Saxon is the chief source. 
To it may be traced both the matter of our tongue, 
the words that compose it, and many of the forms 
which these words assume. Modern English diction¬ 
aries contain about 38,000 words, exclusive of pre¬ 
terites and participles; of this number 23,000, have 
been found on examination to be from the Saxon, 
that is about 25-40 (or 5-8) of the whole. The entire 
number of our words including those in science and art, cannot 
be less than 80,000, but as applied to common style, the number 
38,000 is accurate. In Shakespeare we have 15,000 different 
words, and in the poetry of Milton about 8,000. In common 
use, articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and auxiliary 
verbs recur more frequently than other words; and as these are 
generally of Saxon origin, the actual proportion in speech and 
writing exceeds the proportion as fixed by the dictionary. The 
excess differs in different writers. 

In five verses of Genesis (xliii. 25-29), out of 130 words only 
five are not Anglo-Saxon. In five verses of John (xi. 32-36), out 
of 72 words only two are not Anglo-Saxon. Or combining these 
passages, in ten verses of Scripture, containing 202 words, 39-40 
are from the Anglo-Saxon. In ten lines of Shakespeare ( ‘to be 
or not to be*), out of 81 words 13 are not Anglo-Saxon. In 

278 













LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


279 


twelve lines of Pope, out of 84 words, 26 are not Anglo-Saxon. 
In 153 octavo lines taken from different authors and containing 
1,492 words, there are only 296 words that are not Saxon. This 
reckoning gives 32-40 as the proportion of Saxon words in com¬ 
mon use. Twenty-five out of every forty is the number as fixed 
by the dictionary; thirty-two out of every forty is the proportion 
as fixed by* classic authors. 

Poetry ought to contain more Anglo-Saxon words in propor¬ 
tion than prose, for the subjects it treats of are not much influ¬ 
enced by modern discovery, nor is the phraseology which describes 
it. Hence comes a good practical rule:—The study of poetry is 
a great help to the formation of a good Saxon style. The Bible 
is the richest specimen we have of the beauty and force of the 
old Saxon speech. In much of Scripture only one word in forty 
is not Saxon. How to ascertain what words are of Anglo-Saxon 
origin, so as to write our language forcibly and simply, is an 
important practical question. The following rules require no 
knowledge of Anglo-Saxon, and are based, first, on the forms of 
words, and secondly , on the things to which the words imply: 

I. RULES BASED ON THE FORMS OF WORDS. 

a. Our articles (‘ a , and ‘ the 9 ), adjective pronouns (‘ this/ 
‘that/ ‘few/ ‘many/ ‘some/ ‘none*), and nearly all our con¬ 
junctions and prepositions are from the Anglo-Saxon. 

b. All adjectives whose comparatives or superlatives are 
formed irregularly, as ‘good/‘bad/ ‘better/ ‘worse/ ‘little , 9 
‘less/ etc. Nearly all so-called irregular, or rather defective 
verbs, ‘am/ ‘go/ ‘dare/ ‘have/ etc. All our auxiliary verbs, 
‘do/ ‘have/ ‘shall/ ‘will/ ‘may/ ‘can/ ‘ must/ are of Anglo- 
Saxon origin. 

c. Nearly all words which in any of their forms undergo 
vowel changes are from the Anglo-Saxon, such as. 

Adjectives with two forms, ‘old/ ‘elder/ 

Adjectives forming nouns by interval vowel changes; ‘ strong/ 
‘strength/ ‘long/ ‘length/ ‘broad/ ‘breadth/ 

Verbs that have modified the vowel of the noun with which 


280 


LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


they are connected; ' bliss/ 'bless;' 'knot/ 'net/ 'knit/ 'seat/ 
' set.' 

All verbs with strong preterites, of which there are eight 
classes or more: 'fall/ 'fell/ 'hold, held/ 'draw/ 'drew/ 
'slay/ ' slew/ ' fly/ 'flew/ 'give/ 'got/ ' stand/ 'take.' 

All verbs which undergo vowel changes (and sometimes con¬ 
sonant changes also) when they cease to be intransitive; as ' rise/ 
'raise/ 'lie/ 'lay/ 'sit/ 'set/ 'fall/ 'fell/ ‘drink/'drench/ 
'hound,' ‘hunt.' 

All nouns forming their plurals by vowel changes, as 'foot/ 
' tooth/ ' goose/ ' mouse/ ' man/ ' woman.' 

d . Most words with distinctive Anglo-Saxon endings are 
from Anglo-Saxon, such as nouns in 'hood/ 'head' 'ship/ 
'dom;' as 'manhood/ 'godhead/ 'friendship/ 'earldom.' 

Most nouns in 'ling/ ‘ kin/ ‘ ock/ 'ie/ which are nearly all 
diminutives; as 'darling/ 'gosling/ 'lambkin/ 'firkin/ 'hill¬ 
ock/ 'lassie.' 

All nouns with plurals in en , as ' oxen,' ' children,' ' breth¬ 
ren.' 

Most verbs in en, as whiten, quicken, strengthen. 

Most adjectives in 'ful/ 'ly/ ' ish/ 'en/ ' ern/ 'ward/ 
' some/ as fearful, kingly, blackish, childish, wooden, northern, 
backward, winsome. 

e. Most of our words of one syllable are taken from the 
Anglo-Saxon. Parts of the body, head, skull, ear, tongue, lip, 
chin, lungs; the senses,—sight, touch, taste, smell; infirmities, 
—lame, blind, deaf, dumb; animals,—dog, cow, horse, bull; ele¬ 
ments,— fire, storm, wind, thaw, frost, clouds; products,—grass, 
corn, bread, fowl, fish; fuel,—coal, wood, peat, turf. Some of 
the most forcible of modern poetry owes its power to monosyl- 
ables. 

II. RULES BASED ON THINGS TO WHICH WORDS ARE APPLIED. 

a. From the Anglo-Saxon we get most of the names of our 
earliest and dearest associations, and of the words that express 
the strongest natural feelings of our hearts: father, mother, hus- 


LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


281 


band, wife, son, daughter, brother, sister, home, kindred, friends, 
hearth, roof, fireside, tear, smiles, blushes, laughing, weeping, 
sighing, groaning. 

b. From the Anglo-Saxon we get the names of most objects 
of sense; those which occur most frequently in discourse, and 
which recall individual and therefore most vivid conceptions. 
Such are the names of objects, sun, moon, stars, earth, water, 
(not air); divisions of time,—day, night, morning, evening, twi¬ 
light, noon, midnight, sunset, sunrise; light, heat, cold, frost, 
snow, hail, rain, sleet, thunder, lightning; names of objects of 
natural scenery; the names of the common objects of the animal 
and vegetable kingdoms; and the posture and motions of animal 
life. 

c. 'It is almost another form of the same rule to say, that, 
whilst our general terms are taken mostly from the Latin, terms 
which describe particular objects, qualities or modes of action 
are taken from the Saxon. Motion is Latin*.but creeping, walk¬ 
ing, riding, running, are Saxon. Color is Latin; but black, blue, 
red, yellow, green, brown, are Saxon. 

d. Nearly all the words which have been earliest used by us, 
and which, therefore, have the strongest association with the 
pleasant memories of our youth are.of Anglo-Saxon origin. 
This rule follows from the preceding, but it is important, both 
because it accounts in some measure for the power such words 
have over us, and because it suggests in an agreeable way how 
these words may be recalled. Use the words you first learned, 
the words that fell from the lips most dear to yon, the words 

- that bring up the thoughts of childhood and home, and you will 
unconsciously speak good Saxon. 

e. Most of the words that occupy our practical reason in 
common life, take their names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the 
language of business, of the store, of the market, of the street, 
of the farm. We sell and buy ; we find things cheap and dear ; 
we plow and sow’, we grow rich or poor. 

Many words in the English language have been incorporated 


282 


LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


into it directly from the Latin, and many indirectly through the 
French, Italian, and Spanish, which are all for the most part, 
forms of modern Latin. With the armies of Italy the ancient 
language overran the greater part of the Roman world. Every¬ 
where it overlaid the original tongues, or quietly grafted itself 
upon them. In Spain, for instance, it mixed and blended with 
Celtiberic dialects, that is, dialects of a Keltic stock, allied to the 
Keltic and to the modern Biscayan,— Spanish and Portuguese 
were the results. In France it found dialects of a Keltic stock, 
and after a long history, formed French . The process began in 
the days of the republic, and was widely extended throughout 
all Gaul by the time of Julius Caesar. 

This French language assumed ultimately three or even four 
forms. The Provencal dialect was the first modern language 
(except Anglo-Saxon) that could boast of a literature of its own. 
The Gospels were translated into it in the 12th century; and its 
poets under the name of troubadours, were found in every court 
and camp in Europe. The Norman French was the language of 
William the Conqueror, and his knights. His conquest of Eng¬ 
land, and independent causes, both before and after it, gave 
Norman-French great influence in England; while the songs of 
the troubadours, and the intercourse of the English nobility with 
members of the house and court of Aquitaine, then ruling in 
the south of France, aided the Provenqal in superseding or 
enriching at all events, the Anglo-Saxon speech. In fact, we 
owe to the Anglo-Norman, or to the Latin through it, most of 
the terms that describe the military -system of the middle ages; 
many law terms, and others belonging to poetry and art, as duke, 
count, chivalry, homage, service, etc. To the other dialects of 
France—that is, to the Latin through them — we owe many other 
words in all departments of thought. 

The influence of the Keltic on the English tongue has not 
been by any means so great as might be supposed; and its 
influence on its grammar has been even less than on its vocab¬ 
ulary. 


LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


283 


The Danish or Norse element was introduced in part by the 
frequent visits to the north coasts of Britain, especially of the 
Norsemen, and, in part, by the influence of Canute and his com¬ 
panions. ‘By* is the Norse for town, as in Derby, Whitby. 
The termination ‘ son 9 i3 Norse, as in the names Anderson, Peter¬ 
son, Ericson. 

Greek words are in number and importance greater than 
either of the last two elements. They are either completely 
incorporated into our language, or, like some Latin words, retain 
their own plurals, an evidence of imperfect incorporation; such 
words are automaton, plural automata; phenomenon, phenomena; 
cantharis, cantharides. 

From the Hebrew come ephod, cabala, seraphim, cherubim, 
amen; the Arabic, admiral, algebra, alchemy, almanac, elixir, 
talisman, zero, zenith, besides the names of several animals, and 
articles of merchandise, giraffe, gazelle; coffee, sugar, lemon, 
jasmine, sherbet, syrup, sofa, mattress, mummy, sultan, pasha, 
assassin; the Persian , caravan, dervish, scarlet, azure, lilac; 
the Turkish , scimitar, divan, janissary, dragoman, and 
‘chause’ — the last from the name of an officer of the Turkish 
embassy who cheated London merchants to a large amount, in 
the time of James I. From the Chinese came gong, nankin, 
bohea. Hyson, Congou; the Malay , bantam, sago, gamboge, 
shaddock; from India , calico, chintz, muslin, toddy, curry, and 
lac; from Italy come banditti, charlatan, pantaloon, gazette; from 
the Spanish , mosquito, negro, punctilio, alligator, gala; from the 
Portuguese , palaver, coco, fetish, caste, and marmalade; from 
the Dutch , yacht, sloop, schooner; ammonia is Egyptian ; cider, 
Syrian ; paradise, Persian . Words that maybe termed distinct¬ 
ively American come from a variety of sources. Some are 
derived from native Indian languages, as squaw, wigwam, 
hominy, pemmican; some from the French, as levee, crevasse, 
bayou, etc.; some from the Spniash, as ranche, canyon, stam¬ 
pede, etc.; more from the Dutch, as patroon, boss, stoop {porch)', 
new formations of English words, as congressional, federalist. 


284 


LANGUAGE AND STYLE. 


mileage, nullification; English words used in new meanings as 
eagle, coin; corduroy, road; to locate,’ land; new senses of old 
words, as to fix, put in order; to guess, think, believe; creek, 
small river; obsolete words revived or retained, as fall, autumn; 
gully, channel worn by water; peek, peep; rare, underdone, 
words from English dialects, as bail, handle of pail; shack, worth¬ 
less fellow; spry, nimble; to lam, beat; chore, a piece of work. 
(Devonshire dialect.) 

Names of places have originated many common names, as 
arras, bayonet, cherry, (Cerasus inPontus); currants, (Corinth); 
copper, (Cyprus); cambric, (Cambray); cord wain, (Cordova); 
damask and damson, (Damascus); dimity, (Damietta); delf, 
(Delft); ermine, (Armenian rat); jalap, (Jalapa); magnet, (Mag¬ 
nesia); muslin, (Mussaul in Asia Minor); peach, (Persia); parch¬ 
ment, (Pergamus); spaniel, (Spain); worsted, (Worstead). 

A very intereresting fact is that many words which exist in the 
English language exist in two distinct forms, with often widely dif¬ 
ferent meanings according as they have come direct from the orig¬ 
inal language or mediately through some other language. This 
has already been alluded to, but some further illustrations may 
be given. The first of each set of the following words comes 
from the Latin directly, the second of each set through the 
French: popular, people; inimical; enemy; secure, sure; fidelity, 
fealty; species, spices (a kind of aromatic drugs); blaspheme, 
blame; tradition, treason; regal, royal; hospital, hotel; persecute, 
pursue; superficies, surface; faction, fashion; particle, parcel; 
potion, poison; redemption, ransom. Similarly we have ada¬ 
mant and scandal direct from the Greek, which stopping on their 
way in the Latin arrive finally in the English as diamond and 
slander. 

A knowledge of the etymology of words is a great help to 
accuracy in using them; the shade of difference in meaning 
being often supplied by the original root. Loathing and hatred, 
detestation and abhorrence, for examples, seem synonymous 
terms. The first, however, describes the moral dislike, or nausea. 


COMPOSITION AND STYLE. 


285 


which is excited by a disagreeable object; the second, the hot 
displeasure, which even holy beings may feel against sin. De¬ 
testation is the earnest dislike which compels us to bear witness 
against the thing we condemn; while abhorrence shrinks shud¬ 
dering away from some object of terror and disgust. 

Similarly, arrogant, presumptuous, insolent, impertinent, 
saucy, rude, seem at first nearly synonymous terms. But exam¬ 
ining their roots we find that an arrogant man claims more 
honor and observance than are his due; a presumptuous man 
takes things before he has a right to them; an insolent man vio¬ 
lates the customary rules of society; whilst an impertinent man 
seeks to know or to meddle in things which do not belong to him; 
a saucy person says and does stinging things, pungent things, bit¬ 
ter as salt; while rudeness describes the behavior of those who 
know no better. 

Archbishop Whately notes that the variety of our language 
enables a sophist to assume the appearance of giving a reason, 
when in fact he is only repeating his assertion in words taken 
from another source; as when the propriety of affording to all 
mankind “ an unlimited liberty of expressing their sentiments, 
is stated as a plea for ‘ freedom of speech/ " 

COMPOSITION AND STYLE. 

The first great essential of all good composition is thought . 
An earnest man with a subject in which he feels a deep interest, 
will nearly always be an acceptable speaker. There are some 
exceptions to this rule; but generally to have something to say 
is essential. The art of seeming to say something, when we 
mean nothing, is for the most part an attainment and not a gift. 
Eloquence is speaking out of something within. If there is 
nothing within we call it loquacity, a poor power,— froth with¬ 
out substance, the greatest impertinence of the pulpit and the 
platform. 

The next stage of composition is to define, in our minds at 
least, what we intend to prove or illustrate. If an argument is 
to be set forth it must be defined in proportions; if an illustra- 


286 


COMPOSITION AND STYLE. 


tion, the details must be carefully grouped, and clearly described. 
Unless this is done we shall write or speak without force. Hav¬ 
ing resolved what it is we intend to prove or illustrate, the next 
concern of a writer should be to mark, in a general way, the suc¬ 
cessive stages of his progress. The old plan of indicating in the 
margin the subject of a paragraph, had the great advantage of 
compelling the writer to define it to himself, while it helped the 
reader to see his way. The practice might well be revived in 
modern literature. Having accumulated thoughts with a defi¬ 
nite purpose, and having decided in our own minds how we mean 
to group them, the next question is, how are we to place them on 
canvas? Having something definite to say, how are we to say it? 

One of the most fatal mistakes in relation to style, is to sup¬ 
pose that a writer who wishes to be natural must dispense with 
all toil and pains in composition. This mistake has been sanc¬ 
tioned by very different writers. “ Never think,” says Cobbett, 
“of mending what you write; let it go; no patching.” “ En¬ 
deavor,” says Niebuhr, “ never to strike out anything of what 
you have once written down. Punish yourself by allowing once 
or twice something to pass, though you see you might give 
it better.” But it is none the less to be condemned. Compo¬ 
sition that costs little is generally worth little. Easy writing is 
very hard reading; and for young and unpracticed writers to 
forget this principle is to make themselves and their work 
ridiculous. 

It may help to console those who are not acquainted with the 
classic languages to know that some of the greatest writers have 
been in the same position. Shakespeare, Cobbett, Izaak Wal¬ 
ton, John Bunyan, Benjamin Franklin, Hugh Miller, all excelled 
as authors. The style of each is copious, clear and idiomatic; 
and the style of two of them — Franklin and Miller—is re¬ 
markable for richness and accuracy. Yet when their chief 
works were written they knew no foreign tongue. Their writ¬ 
ings, therefore, illustrate the wealth of idiomatic English, and 
the possibility of mastering the language by the study of English 
literature alone. 


WORDS. 


28? 


How then are onr thoughts to be expressed, remembering 
that style is an art to be sedulously cultivated? What habits are 
we to cultivate, so as to acquire the power of expressing them? 
In brief, we need in our words copiousness, accuracy and pro¬ 
priety; in our sentences,, clearness, unity, strength and harmony; 
and in our paragraphs a living connection between each other. 

WORDS. 

A copious phraseology is one cure for wordiness. It helps us 
to the very words we need. To attain this, good authors should 
be read, and the society of intelligent people cultivated. More 
than one eminent author has affirmed that he learnt more in this 
respect from the society of intelligent women than from any 
other source. Accuracy is even more important than copious¬ 
ness. It teaches us to give each word its exact meaning; makes 
verbiage as unnecessary as it is always displeasing, and tends to 
produce conviction even when the mind is not disposed to be 
convinced. The man who says exactly what he means com¬ 
mends his case no less to our judgment than our taste. He has 
one of the qualities of a great teacher: he seems to have insight, 
and he can tell what he sees. 

Care must be taken not to be misled by apparent synonyms, 
of which long lists are commonly to be met with. The fact is, 
that true synonyms in the English language, or in any language, 
are extremely rare. At certain stages in the progress of a lan¬ 
guage, they are numerous; but they stay for a time only. The 
superfluous words are soon used for a new purpose, or are gradu¬ 
ally laid aside. To distinguish between apparent synonyms is 
a process that requires delicacy, clearness and practice. 

Propriety in the use of words is a principle less absolute than 
either of the preceding. As a rule, words of Anglo-Saxon ori¬ 
gin are most appropriate when we describe individual things, 
natural feelings, domestic life, the poetry of nature; words of 
Latin origin when we describe the results of generalization or of 
abstraction, or the discoveries of science. Is it philosophy you 


288 


SENTENCES. 


discuss? Then “the impenetrability of matter ” will be found a 
better phrase than its Anglo-Saxon equivalent “ unthoroughfare- 
someness of stuff.” Is it natural feeling? Then “paternal 
expectations ” and “ maternal attachment ” are less impressive 
than “father's hopes” and “mother's love.” 

SENTENCES. 

The first grand essential quality of sentences is clearness. 
Speech is properly thought incarnate, as literature is thought 
incarnate and more or less immortal. Each fulfills its mission 
only when the whole spirit of the thought is represented in the 
form. Young thinkers sometimes mistake darkness for depth, 
and suppose that whatever is perspicuous must be superficial. 
Clearness is to speech what a good lens is to the telescope: with¬ 
out it objects appear distorted, or they appear unseen. It is 
what fine atmosphere is to scenery. It makes the whole field 
visible, and bathes the landscape itself with fresh glory. One 
of the first requisites to clearness is grammatical accuracy. We 
ought not have to guess at a writer's or speaker's meaning. Bad 
grammar is injustice to truth. The chief attention, however, 
of a writer who studies clearness needs to be given to the arrange¬ 
ment or collocation of his words. Their position generally 
indicates in English the connection and the sense. It is therefore 
of the last importance. 

Two rules are of frequent use and great advantage: 

I. Words that express things connected in thought should 
he placed as near to each other as possible, unless another arrange¬ 
ment he required for the emphasis . This prevents ambiguity. 

II. Where words or clauses are so placed as to he susceptible of 
a double reference , the construction must he changed: as when 
pronouns are repeated and may refer to different persons or 
things, or when an explanatory or modifying clause is placed 
between two members of a period, for example: 

“ This work in its full extent, being now afflicted with an 
asthma, and finding the power of life gradually declining, he 


SENTENCES. 


289 


had no longer courage to undertake.— Johnson: “ Life of Sav¬ 
age.” 

Apart from all rules, the great requisite of a clear style is 
clear thinking. If an object is not distinctly seen, it cannot be 
distinctly described; nor can any mechanical combination of 
words give an adequate conception of what the speaker himself 
has not adequately conceived. But while clearness is one essen¬ 
tial to good style, one must carefully guard against three faults, 
which are sometimes excused on the plea that clearness requires 
us to commit them. Some writers, for example, think they are 
never clear, unless they describe minutely every part of a sub¬ 
ject, and indicate every step of an argument. Nothing is left 
to the imagination of the reader. Such a style commits the same 
mistake as a map-maker who inserts all the villages and streams 
of a country, instead of contenting himself with the principal 
towns and rivers. The effect is that the smaller places cannot 
be discovered without a glass, while, by their presence on the 
map, what otherwise would be clear is completely concealed. 
A master of composition has justly observed that “ Thucydides 
and Demosthenes lay it down as a rule never to say what they 
have reason to suppose would occur to the auditor or reader in 
consequence of something said before; knowing that everyone is 
more pleased and more easily led when we bring forward his 
thoughts indirectly and imperceptibly, than when we elbow them 
and outstrip them with our own.” Not less mischievous is the 
process of blending with narrative or argument maxims or senti¬ 
ments so commonplace and trivial as to be taken for granted by 
all hearers or readers. Men sometimes think that in such cases 
it is the clearness that is condemned, when in truth it is the 
triteness. The cure is to be sought, not in obscurity of style, 
but in freshness of thought. 

A third mistake is committed when writers or speakers con¬ 
found “literal” and “clear.” They suppose that nothing is clear 
that is figurative, and in seeking to be perspicuous become only 
dull and uninteresting. This is the type of the prosy speaker, 

19 


290 


SENTENCES. 


the most tiresome being on the face of the earth. Let it be noted 
that plain writing may be highly figurative; and that if the 
theme be .abstract or spiritual, figurative language is almost 
essential to perspicuity. The second important quality in sen¬ 
tences is unity. A sentence is a thought put into words; one 
thought, not many. It is upon this definition of a sentence that 
all rules in relation to unity rest. Once let it be understood 
that a sentence is the expression of an entire thought and only 
pne, and the necessity for distinct rules is greatly diminished. Let 
it be carefully noted that unity does not forbid any extension of 
the predicate, or any enlargement of the subject, or of the com¬ 
plement of the predicate. These may be enlarged or extended 
to any degree, 'provided the objects described as parts of the 
thought make one picture , or sense. 

Here, for example, is an enlargement of the subject: 

“ The trim hedge, the grass-plot before the door, the little 
flower-bed bordered with box; the woodbine trained up against 
the wall, and hanging its blossoms around the lattice; the pot of 
flowers in the window; the holly planted providentially around 
the house, to cheat winter of its dreariness, and throw in a sem¬ 
blance of green summer to cheer the fireside;—all these bespeak 
the influence of taste.— Washington Irving: “ Rural Life in 
England.” 

Parenthetic clauses ought to be avoided. They are allowable, 
however, when they contain brief explanatory phrases intended 
to narrow or define the sense; and occasionlly when they suggest 
a by-thought which it is important not to withhold, but which 
has no proper place as a distinct sentence in the paragraph. 

Strength is that quality of speech that fits it to impress, and, 
if need be, to move the minds of men. When words have their 
full force they produce a threefold effect upon the hearer. The 
sound is harmonious; the representation of the thing for which 
it stands is clear and vivid; and there is emotion excited by one 
or more of the foregoing. Such is Burke’s enumeration of the 
results of style when it has done its utmost. But, after all. 


LETTER-WRITING. 


291 


'practice is the grand secret of effectiveness in this as in every 
other art. Write much; write frequently; write quickly; and 
polish afterwards; and you will be sure to succeed. The last 
two rules are Johnson’s. He strongly advises young composers 
to train their minds to start promptly, for it is easier to improve 
in accuracy than in speed. Bobert Hall’s experience confirms 
this rule. He used to lament that his progress in composition 
was so slow and laborious that he could write comparatively 
little, while what he wrote had an air of stiffness from 
which his spoken style was free. Whether these rules are acted 
on or not, the two former are absolute. Excellence in composi¬ 
tion is a great power and its lowest price,—for most—is patient 
toil . 

LETTER-WRITING. 

To some extent only the rules that have been given for style 
are applicable to letter-writing. Some well educated people 
find it very difficult to communicate their thoughts even in a 
friendly epistle. Much of the difficulty arises from a species of 
nervousness, and it is a good role to throw aside rules in the 
matter of friendly communications. Try to write just as you 
would speak, keeping as vividly before you as possible, the 
friend to whom you are writing. It may be a help to utter 
aloud what you wish to say, just as if your friend were actually 
present, and then Avrite down word for word, as if in conversa¬ 
tion what you have said. The great charm in an epistle is 
spontaneity and no dread of solecisms or misspelling should be 
permitted to destroy that. A friend will think little of a slip 
in grammar or in spelling if your style is so natural and living 
that you seem almost to be speaking in your letter. Nothing is 
so disappointing in a familiar epistle as a prosy, stilted, style. 
In business correspondence the best way is to know exactly what 
you wish to say, and to say it in the shortest and simplest way, 
making no effort at style. 

CORRECT AND GRACEFUL SPEECH. 

Bacon says that reading makes a full man; writing a correct 


292 


CORRECT AND GRACEFUL SPEECH. 


man; and speaking a ready man. It is to be desired that not 
only readiness but gracefulness were more studied in speaking. 
Few things are more captivating than the art of saying in con¬ 
versation whatever one has to say, in simple and appropriate 
language. To this end it ought to be remembered that graceful 
speech, and good manners begin at home , as charity is said to 
do. The school may do a good deal for us in this respect, 
although many school teachers use indifferent grammar when 
out of school, but our social surroundings will most of all deter¬ 
mine the quality of our speech. One can readily detect the 
young man or woman who has, in this respect, been gently 
reared. It is far more essential, and, in the best way, remuner¬ 
ative, than to have had a distinguished grandfather. For youth, 
then, there could be no better advice given than this: Practice 
correct and graceful speech at home, and cultivate the society 
of those who do the same. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


T CAN be no longer asserted, as it was once with a 
considerable degree of truth, that America has no 
literature of its own. In order tc have a national 
literature, or national art of any kind, there must 
first be a national character, and the astonishing fact 
is, not that this country should take some time to 
realize its own individuality in artistic creations; but 
that in so marvelously short a period this result has 
been achieved. The very fact of the English tongue, 
shared in common with the parent country; the 
magnificent wealth of genius which is the common 
inheritance of the Briton and American; that further, 
the citizens of this republic had their hands full with the 
immediate concerns which are necessary to the sustenance 
and conduct of civilized life, seemed to militate against those 
efforts of genius, for which wealth, habits of leisure and long 
established institutions have been deemed material requisites. 
One might have predicted sweet snatches of song, “native 
woodnotes wild;” the martial ode, or even the thrilling story of 
war or adventure; but, otherwise, it was natural enough to expect 
that cycles of years must pass, in which a busy people would 
continue to look to those brought up amid associations and 
circumstances all tending to foster genius and mature thought, 
for the graver and more sustained productions of the scholar, 
the statesman, the divine and poet. As it really is, the mere 
titles of the books written by American authors, the product of 
minds nurtured, trained, developed, matured on American soil, 
evincing the nationalizing effect of manners, habits, scenery, 

293 









294 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


circumstances and institutions peculiar to it, would fill a con¬ 
siderable volume. The distinctive literature of this country may 
be said to begin in the speeches and letters of such men as James 
Otis, the elder Adams, Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson, Jay, 
Madison and other patriots of the revolution. In the province 
of history there are no more distinguished names than Irving, 
Prescott, Bancroft, Hildreth and Motley. Theology and Bibli¬ 
cal literature are represented by many names, of whom Dwight 
and Barnes are perhaps most widely known. The American 
novelist “fronts it in the van of all the congregated world;” 
whilst there is no modern poet more distinctly national and yet 
dear to the whole world than Longfellow. These things are so, 
and this is the marvel. 

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), born at East Windsor, Conn. 
A man, a Christian, a divine and a philosopher; one of the 
greatest and best men that have adorned this or any other coun¬ 
try since the apostolic age. Author of “The History of the 
Work of Redemption,” and “ The Freedom of the Will and 
Moral Agency.” 

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), born in Boston; a distin¬ 
guished philosopher and statesman. He brought out his cele¬ 
brated almanac in 1732 (commonly known as “Poor Richard’s 
Almanac); also “A Plan for Improving the Condition of the 
Free Blacks. His life and works, by Sparks, is in ten volumes. 

Francis Hopkinson (1737-1791), Philadelphia; studied law 
and became judge of the United States; wrote “Ambiguity of 
the English language; “Whitewashing”; “A Typographical 
Method of Conducting a Quarrel; “The Battle of Kegs.” *He 
had unrivalled powers of wit and satire. 

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), Virginia; became President; 
“Summary View of the Rights of British America; “Notes on 
Virginia.” 

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), Philadelphia; physician; “In¬ 
quiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits on Body and Mind; 
“Medical Inquiries and Observations on the Diseases of the 




LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


295 


Mind. A philanthropist, and one of the earliest friends of tem¬ 
perance reform. 

Lindley Murray (1745-1826), Sevatara, near Lancaster, 
Penn.; lawyer and merchant; a distinguished philologist; his 
most famous work was his “ English Grammar; first publication; 
“The Power of Religion on the Mind”; his “English Reader” 
is well known. No other school-books have ever enjoyed so wide 
a circulation as Lindley Murray’s. 

John Ledyard (1751-1788), Groton, Conn. ; a celebrated trav¬ 
eller; wrote “A Journal.” 

David Ramsey (1749-1815), Lancaster county, Penn.; physi¬ 
cian and statesman; “History of the American Revolution”; 
“ Life of Washington”; “ Biographical Chart; “ Eulogium on 
Dr. Rush.” 

John Trumbull (1750-1831), Waterbury, Conn.; tutor at 
Yale College, studied law and became judge of the Superior 
Court; author of the celebrated noem “McFingal.” “ A scholar, 
a wit, a gentleman.” 

Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), Northampton, Mass.; tutor at 
Yale College, clergyman, President of Yale, and, at the same 
time, professor of theology; a voluminous writer, pleasing as a 
poet, and learned and eloquent as a divine; poems: “ The Con¬ 
quest of Canaan,” “ Greenfield Hill,” etc.; theological works: 
“ Theology Explained and Defended in a Series of Sermons;” 
“ The History, Eloquence and Poetry of the Bible,” etc.; he wrote 
also “Travels in New England and New York.” 

Philip Freneau (1752-1832), born in New York; edited sev¬ 
eral journals; a celebrated poet in the period of the American 
Revolution; first edition of his poems published in Philadelphia, 
1786, entitled “ The Poems of Philip Freneau, written chiefly 
during the Late War.” 

John Barlow (1755-1812), Reading, Fairfield county, Conn.; 
lawyer, chaplain and editor; author of “ The Columbiad,” a 
poem; “ Hasty Pudding,” and various patriotic songs and ad¬ 
dresses. 


296 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


John Marshall (1755-1835) Virginia, Chief Justice of Uni¬ 
ted States; “A Life of Washington;” “The History of the 
American Colonies;” and a work on “The Federal Constitu¬ 
tion.” 

Noah Webster (1758-1843), West Hartford, Conn.; lawyer, 
teacher, and political writer; his “Spelling Book,” “English 
Grammar,” and a compilation for reading, have had a very wide 
circulation; his celebrated work, “ The American Dictionary of 
the English Language,” engagedhis energies for twenty years, in 
which he met with many difficulties and discouragements. 

Joseph Bennie (1768-1812), Boston; studied law, but aban¬ 
doned law for letters; became the editor of the “Farmer's Mag¬ 
azine,” in which he commenced the essays entitled “Lay 
Preacher,” which laid the foundation of his literary reputation. 
He edited “ The Portfolio ” for twelve years. “ By its talent, vi¬ 
vacity, taste and variety, it did more, perhaps, than any other 
publication of that time, on this side of the Atlantic, to refine 
the taste of the people, and to give a relish for choice reading, 
and for literary pursuits.” 

Joseph HopJcmson (1770-1842), Philadelphia; studied law and 
became judge; chiefly known as the author of the popular song, 
“Hail Columbia.” 

Charles Brochden Brown (1771-1810), Philadelphia; followed 
literary pursuits, wrote novels of a highly sensational kind, as 
“Wieland; ” “Arthur Mervyn, or Memories of the Year 1793;” 
“Edgar Huntly, or the Adventures of a Sleep-Walker;” “Clara 
Howard. ” He conducted “ The Literary Magazine and Ameri¬ 
can Register;” started an “ Annual Register;” and contributed 
to the “Portfolio.” 

Samuel J. Smith (1771-1835), one of the Smiths of Burling¬ 
ton, New Jersey, poet. A volume of his poetry was published 
after his death. 

JosiahQuincy (1772-1864), Boston; statesman and scholar; 
President of Harvard University; wrote “A History of Harvard 
University;” “Memoirof James Grahame, Historian of U. S., 

*tc. 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


297 


Archibald Alexander (1772-1851), Lexington, Va.; Professor 
of Didactic and Polemic Theology at Princeton; works: “Evi¬ 
dences of the Christian Religion,” “ The Canon of the Old Tes¬ 
tament Ascertained;” “ Outlines of Moral Science,” etc. 

William Wirt (1772-1834), Bladensburg, Md.; Attorney- 
General of the United States; wrote “The British Spy;” “The 
Old Bachelor;” “The Life of Patrick Henry.” 

Robert Treat Paine (1773-1811), Taunton, Mass.; author of 
the celebrated political song, “Adams and Liberty.” 

William Sullivan (1774-1839), Saco, Me.; law; works : 
“The Political Class Book; ” “ The Moral Class Book; ” “ His¬ 
torical Class Book; ” “Historical Causes and Effects from the 
Fall of the Roman Empire, 476, to the Reformation, 1517.” His 
best work is the “The Public Men of the Revolution.” 

Lyman Beecher (1775-1863), Hew Haven, Conn.; clergyman; 
published many discourses and sermons, amongst which are,— 
“ Remedy for Duelling,” and “ Six Sermons on the Nature, Oc¬ 
casions, Signs, Evils, and Remedy of Intemperance.” He wrote 
also a work entitled, “Political Atheism.” 

James K. Paulding (1779-1860), Pleasant Valley, Dutchess 
county, N. Y. Head of the Navy Department of the United 
States; a satirist; wrote “ Salmagundi ” conjointly with Wash¬ 
ington Irving; “The Diverting History of John Bull and 
Brother Jonathan; ” “John Bull in America, or the New Mun¬ 
chausen;” “Merry Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham;” 
“The New Pilgrim's Progress.” His best novel is the “ Dutch¬ 
man's Fireside;” others, “The Old Continental,” and “The 
Puritan's Daughter.” 

William Tudor (1779-1830), Boston; “ gentleman and man 
of business, scholar and man of the world; ” projector and first 
editor of the “North American Review;” contributed largely to 
the “ Monthly Anthology; ” published “ Letters on the Eastern 
States,” and the “ Life of James Otis.” 

Francis Scott Key (1779-1843), Frederick county, Md.; dis¬ 
trict attorney for the city of Washington; author of the national 
song, “ The Star Spangled Banner,” and sacred lyrics. 




298 


LITERATURE OE AMERICA. 


Joseph T. Buckingham (1779-), Windham, Conn.; jour¬ 

nalist; projected several successful journals, and commenced 
“The New England Magazine;” published “Specimens of 
Newspaper Literature, with Personal Memoirs, Anecdotes, and 
Reminiscences; and Personal Memoirs and Recollections ol; Edi¬ 
torial Life.” 

Washington Allston (1779-1843), Charleston, S. C.; scholar, 
artist and poet. “ The Sylphs of the Seasons,” and other poems. 

Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864), Trumbull, Conn.; Pro¬ 
fessor of Chemistry and Geology; founder of the “ American 
Journal of Science and Art; ” and named the “ Father of Ameri¬ 
can Periodical Science.” 

Timothy Flint (1780-1840), Reading, Mass.; sometime clergy¬ 
man and afterward curator of a literary institution; wrote 
“ Recollections of Ten Years in the Valley of the Mississippi;” 
“ Lectures upon Natural History, Geology, Chemistry; the Ap¬ 
plication of Steam,” and “Interesting Discoveries in the Arts.” 
He produced several novels, one, “Francis Berrian, or the Mex¬ 
ican Patriot,” and his last, “ The Shoshonee Valley.” He is 
amongst the earliest historians and scene painters of our Western 
country. 

William Ellery Channing (1780-1842), Newport, R. I.; 
clergyman and champion of freedom; his “ Letters to Henry 
Clay” against the plot to extend the area of slavery are cele¬ 
brated. His contributions to the “ Christian Examiner,” with 
his sermons, addresses and miscellaneous works, are published 
in six volumes. 

John James Audubon (1782-1851), New Orleans; distin¬ 
guished naturalist; author of “ The Birds of America.” 

Daniel Webster (1782-1852), Salisbury, N. H.; “ most dis¬ 
tinguished of all American statesmen and orators; ” his discourse 
in commemoration of the landing of the pilgrims is famous. His 
works with his life are in six volumes. 

Joseph Story (1782-1845), Marblehead, Mass.; eminent jurist 
and scholar; edited “Abbot on the Law of Shipping;” pub- 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


299 


lished “ Commentaries on the Constitution of the United 
States; ” and contributed to the “ North American Review.” 

Washington Irving (1783-1859), New York, the most dis¬ 
tinguished of American prose writers. To the world he is in 
prose what Longfellow is in poetry. He has his niche in the 
Westminster Cathedral of' every true heart. We have seen that 
with Mr. Paulding he produced “ Salmagundi,” a work that 
had an immediate success; this was followed by “ The History 
of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker.” Irving later on 
edited the “ Analectic Magazine; ” in 1818 he gave to the world 
his delightful “Sketch-Book;” there followed “Bracebridge 
Hall;” “Tales of a Traveler;” “The Life of Columbus;” 
“Chronicles of the Conquest of Grenada;” “Tour of the 
Prairies;” “Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey;” “Legends of 
the Conquest of Spain; ” “ Astoria; ” “ The Adventures of Cap¬ 
tain Bonneville;” “Life of Goldsmith;” “Life of Washing¬ 
ton.” In 1842 he was appointed minister to Spain. One thinks 
instinctively of Irving, however, not in connection with univer¬ 
sity degrees, or official positions, but as the ideal man of letters. 

. /Samuel Woodworth (1785-1842), Scituate, Mass.; journalist, 
published a weekly miscellany called “ The Ladies’ Literary 
Gazette,” in New York; afterwards, in conjunction with George 
P. Morris, established “The New York Mirror,” long the most 
popular journal of literature and art in this country; wrote an 
“Account of the War with Great Britain;” and a volume of 
“Poems, Odes and Songs, and other Metrical Effusions.” His is 
the well-known song, “ The Old Oaken Bucket.” 

Andrews Norton (1786-1853), Hingham, Mass.; D. D,, and 
Dexter Professor of Sacred Literature; wrote “ Evidences of the 
Genuineness of the Gospels,” and contributed largely to period¬ 
icals. 

Richard H. Dana (1787-1879), Cambridge, Mass.; poet and 
3ssayist; assisted Prof. E. T. Channing in editing the “ North 
American Review,” in which his first poem, “ The Dying 
haven,” appeared; published his “Idle Man” in numbers; 




300 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


author of “ The Buccaneer,” and other poems; and “ Poems 
and Prose Writings.” 

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), Burlington, N. J.; six 
years in the United States navy; a celebrated novelist. “The 
Spy ” established his fame, and was published in England and 
on the Continent; there followed “ The Pioneers; ” “ Leather 
Stocking Tales; ” “The Prairie; ” “ The Last of the Mohicans;” 
“ The Pathfinder; ” “ The Deer' Slayer,” etc. Among his nau¬ 
tical novels are, “The Pilot;” “ The Red Rover;” “The Water 
Witch;” “The Two Admirals,” etc. He wrote in all thirty- 
four novels, and also “History of the United States Navy;” 
“ Gleanings in Europe; ” “ Sketches in Switzerland.” 

James A. Hillhouse (1789-1841), New Haven, Conn.; wrote 
“Percy's Masque,” a Drama in Five Acts; “Hadad,” a Dra¬ 
matic Poem: “Demetria,” a Tragedy in Five Acts, and 
“ Sachem.” 

William Jay (1789-1858), city of New York; a warm advo¬ 
cate of Sunday schools, temperance, peace, and for many years 
president of the American Peace Society; wrote “The Life and 
Writings of John Gay; ” “An Inquiry into the Character and 
Tendency of the American Colonization, and American Anti- 
Slavery Societies; ” A View of the Action of the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment in Behalf of Slavery; ” “ Miscellaneous Writings on 
Slavery;” “History of the Mexican War.” 

Jared Sparks (1789-1866), Wilmington, Conn.; Professor of 
Ancient and Modern History, and afterward Principal of Har¬ 
vard University; editor of “North American Review;” author 
of important historical works; “Life of John Ledyard;” “The 
Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution; ” 
“ The Life of Governor Morris; ” “ The Life of Washing¬ 
ton;” “The Works of Benjamin Franklin; ” “Correspondence 
of the American Revolution;” he also commenced the “Li¬ 
brary of American Biography.” 

Lydia Huntly Sigourney (1791-1865), Norwich, Conn.; 
wrote “Letters to Pupils;” “Letters to Young Ladies;' 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


301 


“Whispers to a Bride,” and “ Letters to Mothers;” many 
works for the young on temperance and other subjects. Every¬ 
thing she has written has been pure and elevating in its whole 
tone and influence.” She wrote also much in verse. 

Alexander H. Everett (1791-1847), Boston; lawyer and di¬ 
plomatist, one of the most eminent literary men of our coun¬ 
try ; principal works, “ Europe : A Treatise on the Political 
Condition of Europe in 1821; ” “ America : New Ideas of Pop¬ 
ulation.” 

George Tichnor (1791-1871), Boston; Professor of Modern 
Languages and Literature in Harvard University, wrote “The 
History of Spanish Literature.” His “ Life of Lafayette,” con¬ 
tributed to the “North American Review,” has gone through 
several editions. 

Charles Sprague (1791-1875), Boston; banker; a finished 
poet and graceful prose writer; his best political productions are 
“ Shakespeare Ode” and “ Curiosity.” 

John Howard Payne (1792-1852), city of New York; 
author of a number of dramas, and other poems, but most 
notable for the favorite “ Home, Sweet Home,” which he intro¬ 
duced, when in London, into an opera called “Clari; or, the 
Maid of Milan.” 

Seba Smith (1792-1868), Buckfield, Me.; journalist; author 
of “Letters of Major Jack Downing;” “My Thirty Years Out 
of the United States Senate, by Major Jack Downing;” and a 
volume of humorous stories entitled “ Way Down East;” and 
“ New Elements of Geometry.” 

Henry C. Carey (1793-18,9), Philadelphia; political econ¬ 
omist of world-wide reputation; his works, “ Laws of Wealth; 
or, Principles of Political Economy,” and “The Past, the Pres¬ 
ent and the Future,” have been translated into several European 
languages. 

Samuel G. Goodrich (1793-1860), Ridgefield, Conn.; the 
well known “Peter Parley.” Miscellaneous works, including 
fourteen volumes of “ The Token,” comprise 30 vols; School- 


302 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


Books, 27 vols; Tales under the name of “ Peter Parley,” 36 
vols; Parley’s Historical Compends, 36 vols; Parley’s Miscella¬ 
nies, 70 vols; in all 177 volumes. “ Of all these,” he says, 
“ about seven millions of volumes have been sold.” 

William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), Cummington, Mass.; 
a poet of the highest order, in his own delightful walk; his 
“ Thanatopsis,” written before he was nineteen, has such a 
beauty and calmness, such a wealth of that sweet wisdom which 
comes only rarely to the few after long years that we might al¬ 
most fancy the poet had learned his lesson in a previous exis¬ 
tence. Instinctively we think of the conception— 

“ Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting; 

“The soul that resteth in us, our life-star, 

“ Hath had elsewhere its setting, 

“And cometh from afar, 

“ Not in entire forgetfulness, 

“ And not in utter nakedness, 

“ But trailing clouds of glory do we come 
“ From God, who is our home.” 

Bryant, although thus precocious did not exhaust himself in 
a single magnificent effort; a year later came his Inscrip¬ 
tion for an Entrance into a Wood;” three years afterward “ The 
Waterfowl,” and in 1821, his longest poem, “ The Ages.” He 
did much good work, was a lawyer, an editor, and traveled much, 
as poets love to do, but it is as a poet we cannot but think of 
him with a thought that excludes all others. He is related to 
us by a sympathy that is jealous of all earthlier relations. 

John Neal (1793-1876), Portland, Maine; litterateur; author 
of “Keep Cool,” a novel written “chiefly for the discourage¬ 
ment of dueling; ” “ The Battle of Niagara,” with other poems; 
a novel, “Brother Jonathan,” etc., etc. He was versatile to a 
fault. 

Edward Robinson (1794-1863), Southington, Conn.; philolo¬ 
gist and Biblical critic. Works: various valuable translations; 
“Lexicon of the New Testament;” “Biblical Researches in 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


303 


Palestine.” He projected and established “ The Bibliotheca 
Sacra.” 

Edioard Everett (1794-1865), Dorchester, Mass.; younger 
brother of A. H. Everett; orator and statesman. Works: “A De¬ 
fense of Christianity; ” Miscellaneous Writings, 2 vols; Ora¬ 
tions and Speeches, 2 vols. 

Joseph Rodman Drake (1795-1820), city of New York; 
poet and author of “The Culprit Fay,” a work of exquisite 
fancy. 

Fitz-Greene Halleck (1795-1867), Guildford, Conn.; poet; 
author of “Fanny,” a satirical poem; “Alnwick Castle,” and 
above all of the ode “ Marco-Bozzaris.” He writes a charming 
tribute to Burns. 

James Gates Per rival { 1795-1856), Berlin, Conn.; scientist 
and literator ; wrote “Prometheus,” a poem in the Spenserian 
measure; “The Dream of Day;” and many other poems, dis¬ 
playing rich fancy, pathos and rare command of language. 

William B. Sprague (1795-1876), Andover, Conn.; divine; a 
voluminous author on religious subjects; author of “Annals of 
the American Pulpit.” 

Sarah Josepha Hale n6e Buell (1795-1879), Newport, N. H.; 
wrote a large number of prose works and poems, edited “The 
Ladies* Magazine,” the first periodical in America exclusively 
devoted to woman, and afterwards “ The Lady’s Book.” Her 
“Woman’s Record, or Sketches of all Distinguished Women,” 
from the beginning till a.d. 1850, is very valuable for reference. 

Francis Wayland (1796-1865), city of New York; Presi¬ 
dent of Brown University; divine and moral philosopher; au¬ 
thor of “ Moral Science,” “Political Economy,” and “Intel¬ 
lectual Philosophy.” 

William Hickling Prescott (1796-1859), Salem, Mass.; emi¬ 
nent historian; deprived in youth by an accident, of an eye, 
and working at great disadvantage with the other, which be¬ 
came weak by sympathy; a man of genius, of fortitude, and of 
amiability; an ornament to his own country and the admiration 


304 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


of other lands. “History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" “Con¬ 
quest of Mexico;" “Conquest of Peru;" “The History of the 
Reign of Philip the Second." 

Catharine Maria Sedgwick (1789-1867), Stockbridge, Mass.; 
daughter of Theodore Sedgwick, jurist and statesman; a de¬ 
lightful writer of tales whose tendency is altogether for good. 
Her “Morals of Manners" is said to have had a happy influ¬ 
ence in educating the manners of the young, 

John Gorham Palfrey (1796-), Boston; LL.D.; divine 

and historian; author of “ A History of New England." 

William Ware (1797-1852), Hingham, Mass.; divine; author 
of “ Zenobia, or The Fall of Palmyra, an Historical Romance;" 
“ Aureli^n;" “Inlian, or Scenes in India." 

John G. C. Brainard (1796-1828), New London, Conn.; edi¬ 
tor of “ Connecticut Mirror," Hartford. His “ Literary 
Remains "are published with a memoir by Whittier. 

Albert Barnes (1798-1870), Rome, N. Y.; divine; the author 
of many valuable commentaries, and especially famous for his 
“Notes" on the New Testament. 

Robert Charles Sands (1799-1832), city of New York; jour¬ 
nalist; “ Yamayden," a poem; editor of “ New York Review." 

George Washington Doane (1799-1859), Trenton, N. J.; 
D.D., LL.D., Bishop; “ Songs by the Way," chiefly devo¬ 
tional. 

Lydia Maria Child , nee Francis (1802 -), Massachusetts; 

philanthropist, and authoress of many biographies, tales, and 
other improving works. 

George Bancroft (1800- --), Worcester, Mass.; eminent 

historian; author of “The History of the United States." 

George P. Morris (1802-1864), Philadelphia; Brigadier-Gen¬ 
eral in the military organization of New York; “ The Song-Writer 
of America;" editor of “The New York Mirror," “TheNew 
Mirror," and “The Home Journal;" works: “The Deserted 
Bride, and other Poems;" “The Whip-poor-will," a poem; 
“American Melodies." Some of his songs*—and it is by these 



LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


305 


ho will live—are “ Life in theWest,” “When Other Friends are 
Round Thee,” “Up with the Signal,” “Woodman, Spare that 
Tree,” “My Mother's Bible.” 

George Denison Prentice (1802-1870), Preston, Conn.; jour¬ 
nalist and poet; editor of the “Louisville Journal;” he has writ¬ 
ten much beautiful poetry for his own journal and other period¬ 
icals. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Boston; eminent essay¬ 
ist and philosopher; chief works: “Man Thinking,” “Literary 
Ethics;” “Nature, an Essay;” “TheDial,”a magazine of litera¬ 
ture, philosophy and history; “The Method of Nature;” “Man, 
the Reformer;” “ New England Reformers;” “ The Young Amer¬ 
ican;” “Negro Emancipation in the West Indies;” a volume of 
“ Poems;” “ Representative Men.” 

Horace Bushnell (1802-1876), Washington, Conn.; D.D.; 
clergyman; chief works: “God in Christ;” “View of Christian 
Nurture;” “ Christ in Theology;” “ Sermons for the New Life;” 
“Sermons on Living Subjects;” “Nature and the Supernatural 
as Together Constituting the One System of God.” 

George W. Bethune (1805-1862), city of New York; D.D.; 
clergyman and poet; Chancellor of the University of New York; 
chief works: “The Fruit of the Spirit;” “Early Lost, Early 
Saved;” “History of a Penitent, or Guide to an Enquirer;” an 
edition of “ Walton's Angler,” with copius literary and biograph¬ 
ical notes; “ Lays of Love and Faith, witli other Fugitive Poems;” 
“The British Female Poets, with Biographical and Critical 
Notices;” and many orations and lectures. 

Caroline M. Kirkland , nee Stansbury (1801-1864), city of 
New York; lived in Detroit, Mich., for two years, and for six 
years about sixty miles west of it; wrote, “ New Home, Who'll 
Follow, or Glimpses of Western Life, by Mrs. Mary Clares;” 
“Forest Life;” “Western Clearings;” and many other works, 
including “Memoirs of Washington.” 

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), Salem, Mass., one of 
America's most distinguished writers; “Twice Told Tales;'' 

20 


306 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


“ The Journal of an African Cruiser;” “ Mosses from an Old 
Manse;” “ The Scarlet Letter;” “ House with the Seven Gables;” 
“True Stories from History and Biography;” “The Blithedale 
Romance,” etc. 

Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-), city of Hew York; 

journalist; co-editor of the “New York American;” first editor 
of the “Knickerbocker Magazine;” proprietor of the “American 
Monthly Magazine;” and for one year editor of the “ New York 
Mirror;” works: “A Winter in the West;” “Wild Scenes in 
Forestand Prairie;” “Greyslaer, a Romance;” “The Vigil of 
Faith, A Legend of the Adironack Mountains, and Other 
Poems;” “ Love’s Calendar.” 

William Gilmore Simms (1806-1870), Charleston, S. C.; nov¬ 
elist, historian and poet; principal poetical work, “Atalantis, a 
Story of the Sea;” novels: “Martin Faber;” “Guy Rivers;” 
“Yemassee;” “ The Partisan,” “ Mellichampe;” “ Pelayo;” “Carl 
Werner;” “Richard Hurdis;” “Damsel of Darien;” etc.; bio¬ 
graphical and historical works comprise lives of Captain John 
Smith, General Marion, Chevalier Bayard, and a “History 
of South Carolina.” 

Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806-1867), Portland, Me.; poet 
and journalist; works: “Pencilings by the Way;” “ Inklings of 
Adventure;” “Loiterings of Travel;” “Letters from under a 
Bridge;” two tragedies, “Tortesa, the Usurer,” and “Bianca 
Visconti,” under the title of “Two Ways of Dying for a Hus¬ 
band.” 





CHAPTER XXVII. 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 



( Continued .) 


ENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW (1807- 
1882), Portland, Me., a poet enshrined in the heart 
of the world, who has not given expression to a 
single thought that the purest might regret; as sweet 
and true, noble and living a child of genius as ever 
breathed God’s fresh air and bathed in his sunshine. 
He “sings on one clear harp to diverse tones.” No 
one by the authority of his beautiful nature has ever 
been more entitled to comfort us in our sorrows 
with such words as these: 

“ There is no death, what seems so is transition; 

This life of mortal breath 

Is but the suburb of the life Elysian 

Whose portal we call death.” 


Such lives as his,—and his verse is the utterance of his life— 
is to many a greater assurance of immortality than any dogma, 
however authoritative. We think of his song when we read his 
own words: 


Oh that dew, like balm, shall steal 
Into wounds that cannot heal, 

Even as sleep our eyes doth steal; 

And that smile like sunshine, dart 
Into many a sunless heart, 

For a smile of God thou art. 

He studied at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, and soon after 
graduating was offered there a professorship of modern languages, 

307 















308 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


to prepare himself for which he went to Europe and traveled 
for three and a half years, residing in France, Spain, Italy, 
Germany, Holland and England. In 1835 he was elected Pro¬ 
fessor of Modern Languages and Belles-Lettres in Harvard Col¬ 
lege, when he again went abroad and spent more than a year in 
Denmark, Sweden, Germany and Switzerland. He resigned 
his professorship in 1854. 

In 1835 was published his “ Outre-Mer," a collection of 
sketches and essays; in 1839, “Hyperion, a Romance," and 
“ Voices of the Night," his first collection of poems; afterwards, 
in succession, “Ballads and Other Poems;" “ Poems on Slavery/* 
“The Spanish Student," a play; the “Poets and Poetry of 
Europe;" “ The Belfry of Bruges;" “Evangeline;" “Kavanagh, 
a Tale;" “ The Seaside and the Fireside;" “The Golden Legend;" 
“.The Song of Hiawatha;" “ The Courtship of Miles Standish;" 
“Tales of a Wayside Inn;" “Poems of Places." 

George Barrell Cheever (1807 -), Hallowell, Me.; clergy¬ 

man; a philanthropist and temperance reformer; works, — 
“American Common-place Book of Prose;" “American Com- 
mpn-place Book of Poetry;" “Studies in Poetry with Biograph¬ 
ical Sketches of the Poets;" “ Selections from Archbishop 
Leighton, with an Introductory Essay;" “God's Hand in Amer¬ 
ica," etc. 

Richard Hildreth (1807-1865), Deerfield, Mass., historian of 
the United States; took chief part in founding the “Boston 
Atlas;" wrote the powerful novel “Archy Moore;" “Despotism 
in America;" “ History of Banks;" translation from the French 
of Dumont, of “Bentham's Theory of Legislation;" “Theory 
of Morals;" “History of the United States;" “ Theory of Poli¬ 
tics;" “Japan as it Was, and as it Is;" “Atrocious Judges; or, 
Lives of Judges Infamous as Tools of Tyrants and Instruments 
of Oppression." 

Elizabeth Margaret Chandler (1807-1834), Wilmington, Dela¬ 
ware; authoress of “The Slave Ship." 

Henry Reed (1808-1854), Philadelphia; Professor of Rhetoric 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


309 


and English Literature in the University of Pennsylvania; 
“ Lectures on English Literature from Chaucer to Tennyson;” 
“ Lectures on the British Poets;” “ Lectures on English History 
and Tragic Poetry, as Illustrated by Shakespeare;” “Two Lec¬ 
tures on the History of the American Union. 

William D. Gallagher (1808 --), Philadelphia; poet; edited 

“Cincinnati Mirror;” connected with “Western Literary 
Journal and Monthly Review;” the “Western Monthly Maga¬ 
zine;” and the “Hesperian, a Monthly Miscellany of General 
Literature;” joint editor of the “Cincinnati Gazette;” published 
poems under the title of “Erato;” and edited “Selections from 
the Poetical Literature of the West.” 

George Stillman Hillard (1808-1871), Machias, Me., lawyer, 
orator and poet; published several orations; “Six Months in 
Italy;” a series of “ Class Readers;” an edition of “Spenser.” 
His “ Life of Captain John Smith” is in the “Library of Ameri¬ 
can Biography.” 

John Greeenleaf Whittier (1808-), Haverhill, Mass.; “poet 

of freedom and humanity, known and loved in both hemispheres;” 
“Ballads of New England;” “Bay of Seven Islands;” “Child 
Life;” “Hazel Blossoms;” “In War Time;” “King's Missive 
and other Poems;” “Pennsylvania Pilgrim;” “Snow-Bound;” 
“ Songs of Labor;” “Songs of Three Centuries;” “Seat on the 
Beach;” also “ Old Portraits and Modern Sketches,” a series 
of prose essays on Bunyan, Baxter, etc. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809 -), Cambridge, Mass.; physi¬ 

cian, poet, man of letters; brilliant, profound, witty, pathetic, 
keen-eyed, sympathetic, it would be difficult to find in literature 
a man with such a happy combination of enviable qualities as 
Wendell Holmes. He is a charming writer of that difficult form 
of verse called vers de societe ; and indeed recalls Mackworth 
Praed, who is admittedly monarch in that domain; his “Auto¬ 
crat of the Breakfast-Table ” is as happy as its title. There are 
but two men, ripe in years, living to-day who compare with 
each other in a green and glorious intellectual old age, and these 



310 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA, 


are the American Oliver Wendell Holmes and Scotch ex-Professor 
John Stuart Blackie. 

Edgar Allen Poe (1811-1849), Baltimore, Va.; a gifted and 
deplored son of genius; his unhappy failing has been written of 
and all his foolishness hashed up, and rehashed to very weari¬ 
ness; his tales are weird fascinating creations; “ The Raven ” 
every one knows, and some of his other poems are full of liquid 
music. 

Charles Sumner (1811-1874), Boston, scholar, jurist, states¬ 
man and philanthropist; “Sumner’s Reports” are well known 
to the legal profession and his “ Oration on the True Grandeur 
of Nations” is famous; his “ Speeches, Addresses and Literary 
Essays ” are published. 

Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-), Litchfield, Conn. ; first 

publication, “ Uncle Lot;” “ The Mayflower” published in 1849, 
was a collection of tales and essays; “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” was 
published in numbers and was written with almost miraculous 
speed, amid other duties, family cares and ill-health; in 1852 it 
appeared in book form and had unexampled success; a million 
copies were sold in England in that year, before the end of 1852 
it had been translated into Italian, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, 
Dutch, Flemish, German, Polish and Magyar; other works of 
this gifted lady are “Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands;” 
“Dred, or a Tale of the Dismal Swamp;” and “ The Minister’s 
Wooing.” 

Henry Theodore Tucherman (1813-1871), Boston; poet and 
essayist; “ Artists’ Life, or Sketches of American Painters;” 
“The Italian Sketch-book;” “The Optimist,” a collection of 
essays; “Rambles and Reveries;” “Sicily, a Pilgrimage;” 
“Thoughts on the Poets;” “ Characteristics of Literature;” he 
also contributed to many prominent serials. 

Henry Ward Beecher (1813-1887), Litchfield, Conn.; a 
preacher and lecturer of the highest eminence; “ Lectures to 
Young Men;” “Star Papers, or Experiences of Art and Nature,” 
etc. 


LITERATURE OE AMERICA. 


311 


John Lothrop Motley (1814-1877), Dorchester, Mass.; eminent 
historian, author of “ The Rise of the Dutch Republic." 

Rufus Wilmot Griswold (1815-1857), Benson, Vermont; man 
of letters; famous for his “ Poets and Poetry of America;" 
“ The Prose Writers of America;" and “The Female Poets of 
America." 

Philip Pendleton Cooke (1816-1850), Martinsburg, Va.; 
lawyer; author of “ Froissart Ballads and other Poems." 

John Godfrey Saxe (1816-1887), Highgate, Vermont; “the 
witty poet;" “Progress, a Satire;" “Rape of the Lock;" “Proud 
Miss McBride;" etc., etc. 

A. Cleveland Coxe (1818-), Mendham, N. J.; bishop; 

chief publications, “Athanasion;" “Miscellaneous Poems;" 
“Christian Ballads;" he has written many valuable articles for 
various serials in this country and in England. 

James Russell Lowell (1819-), Cambridge, Mass.; distin¬ 

guished poet and essayist; author of “Legend of Brittany;" 
“Prometheus" and “ Miscellaneous Poems and Sonnets;" “ Con¬ 
versations on Some of the Old Poets ;" “A Fable for Critics ;" 
“The Biglow Papers." 

Josiah Gilbert Holland (1819-), Belcherton, Mass.; 

editor; the author of “Timothy TitcomVs Letters;" “The 
Bay Path," a novel; “ Bitter Sweet," a pastoral poem; etc., etc. 

George H. Boker (1824-), Philadelphia; man of letters; 

author of “The Lesson of Life and Other Poems ;" “Calaynos, 
a Tragedy;” “Anne Boleyn, a Tragedy," etc., etc. 

Sarah Jane Lippincott (1823 -), Poinpey, FT. Y.; “Grace 

Greenwood," wrote for the New York Mirror , “Ariadne;" 
“The Horseback Ride;" “ Pygmalion," editor of “The Ladies 
Book ;"published “ Greenwood Leaves ;" “ Poems ;" “History 
of My Pets;" “ Haps and Mishaps of a Tour in Europe;" “ Mer- 
rie England," for children; “A Forest Tragedy and Other 
Tales;" “Stories and Legends of History and Travel." 

George William Curtis (1824 -), Providence, R. I.; man 

of letters; “Nile Notes of a Howadji;" “The Howadji in 


312 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


Syria;” “Lotus Eating, a Summer Book;” “The Potiphar 
Papers.” 

Richard Henry Stoddard (1825 -), Hingham, Mass.; 

poet; contributor to various magazines; published “Footprints;” 
“Poems;” “Adventures in Fairyland;” “Songs of Summer;” 
“ Book of the East ” 

Bayard Taylor (1825-1878), Kennet Square, Penn.; poet; 
“ Home Pastorals and Ballads;” “ Lars, a Pastoral;” “ Poems of 
Home and Travel;” “Poems of the Orient;” “Essays and Lit¬ 
erary Notes,” “A Journey to Central Africa;” “The Lands of 
the Saracens,” and “India, China and Japan.” 

Louis Jean Rudolph Agassiz (1807-1873), Switzerland; 
naturalist; author of “Natural History of Fresh Water Fishes 
of Central Europe;” “Etudes sur les Glaciers;” “Geological 
Sketches;” “Structure of Animal Life;” “Journey in Bra¬ 
zil,” etc.* 

Samuel Austin Allibone, born (Prussia) 1816; literary lexicog- 
ar. Best known by his “Critical Dictionary of English 
Literature,” and “British and American Authors.” 

William Taylor Adams , “Oliver Optic,” born (Massachu¬ 
setts) 1822; author of many popular juvenile works. 

Charles Godfrey Leland, born (Pennsylvania) 1824; poet; 
author of the “Hans Breitmann Ballads,” etc., and of several 
prose works, among which are “The English Gypsies and Their 
Language;” “Origin of the Gypsies.” His best poem is “The 
Music Lesson of Confucius.” 

Mrs. Sarah Pay son Parton , “Fanny Fern,” (Maine 1811- 
1872), sister to N. P. Willis, essayist and novelist; author 
“Ruth Hall;” “Fern Leaves;” “Folly as It Flies,” etc. 
Wife of 

James Parton, born (England) 1822 -, biographer. A 

prolific writer. Author of attractive biographies of Greeley, 
Aaron Burr, Andrew Jackson, Benjamin Franklin, Jefferson, 
“Famous Americans,” and “Voltaire,” which is considered his 
most important work. 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


313 


Francis Winthrop Palfrey, born (Massachusetts) 1831, (son 
of John G. Palfrey, historian). Author of “Antietam and 
Fredericksburgh,” in Scribner’s “ Campaigns of the Civil 
War;” memoir “William Francis Bartlett,” etc. 

Sarah Hamond Palfrey , born (Massachusetts) 1833, (sister 
of F. W. Palfrey). “E. Foxton.” Novelist and poet. Author 
of the novels “Katharine Morne” and “Herman,” and sev¬ 
eral volumes of poems. 

Stephen Collins Foster (1826-1864), Pennsylvania. Song 
writer. Author “ Suwanee River ” “My Old Kentucky Home,” 
“Nelly Bly,” etc. 

Mrs. Rosa Griffith Jeffrey, born (Mississippi) 1826. Novel¬ 
ist and poet. Author of “ Woodburn,” “ Florence Vale,” “ The 
Crimson Hand,” and poems. 

George Brinton McClellan, born (Pennsylvania) 1826. Author 
of “The Armies of Europe,” “ Organization and Campaigns of 
the Army of the Potomac,” etc. 

Francis Miles Finch, born (New York) 1827. Poet. Author 
of the well-known poem, “ The Blue and the Gray.” 

Charles Elliot Norton, born (Massachusetts) 1827. Author 
of “Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages,” 
“ Notes of Travel and Study in Italy,” etc., and translator of 
Dante’s “Vita Nuova.” 

William James Rolfe, born (Massachusetts) 1827. Shakes¬ 
pearean scholar. Editor of an annotated edition of “ Shakes¬ 
peare” in forty volumes, and of Craik’s “English of Shakes¬ 
peare,” co-author with J. H. Hanson, of several classical text¬ 
books, and with J. A. Gillet, of the “Cambridge Physics.” 

Mrs. S. Rochester Ford, born (Kentucky) 1828. Novelist. 
Author “ Grace Truman,” “Romance of Freemasonry,” “Raids 
and Romance of Morgan and His Men,” etc. 

William Alexander Hammond, born (Maryland) 1828. Phy¬ 
sician. . Author “Military Hygiene,” “Physiological Essays,” 
“Sleep and Its Derangements,” “Nervous Derangements,”etc. 

Hiram Corson , born (Pennsylvania) 1828. Chaucerian and 


314 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


early English scholar. Editor of Chaucers “ Legende of Goode 
Women,” and author of “A Thesaurus of Early English,” a val¬ 
uable handbook of Anglo-Saxon and early English. 

William James Stillman , born (New York) 1828. Littera¬ 
teur and artist. Author “ History Cretan Insurrection,” 
“ Poetic Localities of Cambridge,” etc. 

Theodore Winthrop (1828-1861), Connecticut. Novelist. 
Author of “John Brent,” “Cecil Dreeme,” “Edwin Brother- 
toft,” “Canoe and Saddle,” “Love on Skates,” etc. 

Lewis Wallace, born (Indiana) 1828. Novelist. Author of 
the “Fair God: An Aztec Story,” and “Ben Hur: A Tale of 
the Christ.” 

Charles Graham Halpine , “Miles O’Reilly,” (1829-1868), 
Ireland. Poet. Author of poems, “Miles O’Reilly Papers,” etc. 

Mrs. Martha J. R. Lamb, born 1829, (Massachusetts). His¬ 
torian. Editor “ Magazine of American History,” “ History of 
the City of New York,” etc. 

Guy Humphrey Me Master, born (New York) 1829. Poet. 
Author of a lyric entitled “ Carmen Bellicosum.” 

Charles Dudley Warner, born (Massachusetts) 1829. Hu¬ 
morist. Author “ My Summer in a Garden; ” “ Back-log Stud¬ 
ies;” “Baddeck;” “Saunterings; ” “Being a Boy;” “Bad- 
deck and That Sort of Thing;” “Mummies and Moslems;” 
“Adirondack Essays,” etc. 

Mrs. Margaret Hosmer, born (Pennsylvania) 1830. Nov¬ 
elist and writer of Sunday-school tales. Author “ Blanche 
Gilroy;” “ Chinaman in California,” etc. 

Mrs. Helen Jackson, <f H. H,” born (Massachusetts) 1830. 
Poetess and litterateur. “ Tides,” “October,” and “ Poppies on 
the Wheat,” are some of her finest poems. “ Bits of Travel,” 
“ Bits of Talk,” and “ A Century of Dishonor,” are her princi¬ 
pal prose works. 

S. Weir Mitchell, born (Pennsylvania) 1829. Author of 
several valuable professional works, the novels “Hephzibah 
Guinness,” and “ In War Time,” “ The Hill of Stones,” and 
other poems, etc. 


LITERATURE OP AMERICA. 


315 


Luigi Monti, born (Sicily) 1830; litterateur; author 
“ An American Consul Abroad; ” “ Leone,” a novel, etc. He 
appears in Longfellow’s “Tales of a Wayside Inn” as “The 
Young Sicilian.” 

Chauncey Wright , (Massachusetts) 1830-1875; philosopher; 
author Philosophical Discussions.” 

Mrs. Jane G. Austin, born (Massachusetts) 1831; novel¬ 
ist; author of “ Shadow of Moloch Mountain;” “ Mrs. Beau¬ 
champ Brown;” “The Desmond Hundred;” “A Nameless 
Nobleman;” two volumes of “Fairy Tales;” “Nantucket 
Scraps,” etc. 

Charles Nordhoff, born (Prussia 1830); litterateur; au¬ 
thor of “Cape Cod” and “All Along Shore,” “California,” 
“ Politics for Young Americans,” etc. 

Josiah Phillips Quincy , born (Massachusetts) 1830; poet 
and litterateur; author “ The Protection of Majorities,” and 
other papers, etc. 

Benjamin F. De Oosta, born (Massachusetts) 1831; his¬ 
torical writer; author of “ The Pre-Columbian Discovery of 
America,” “The Northmen in Maine,” etc., and editor “His¬ 
tory P. E. Church,” etc. 

Ignatius Donnelly (Pennsylvania) 1831; author “ Essay 
on the Sonnets of Shakespeare,” “Atlantis: The Antediluvian 
World,” and “Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel.” 

Paul Hamilton Hayne, born (S. Carolina) 1831; lyric 
poet; author of “Legends and Lyrics,” sonnets and other 
poems, etc. 

Mrs. Mary Virginia [ Halves ] Terhune , “Marion Harland,” 
born (Virginia) 1833; novelist. Author of “Alone,” “Moss- 
Side,” Beechdale,” “Common Sense in the Household,” etc. 

Mrs. Metta Victoria [ Fuller ] Victor , born (Pennsylvania) 
1831; novelist and poetess. “Maum Guinea,” “Jo. Daviess's 
Client ” and the “ Dead Letter ” are the best of her numerous 
stories. “Compound Interest” one of her best poems. 

Andrew Dickson White , born (New York) 1832; historical 


316 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


writer; president Cornell University; author “The Warfare of 
Science,” “Lectures on Modern History.” 

Louisa May Alcott, born (Pennsylvania) .1832; author of 
“ Moods,” “ Little Women,” “ Little Men,” “ An Old Fashioned 
Girl,” “Eight Cousins,” “Under the Lilacs,” etc. 

Mrs. Elizabeth Ann Allen, “ Florence Percy, ” born (Maine) 
1832; poetess, best known by her poem “Rock Me to Sleep, 
Mother.” 

Hubert Howe Bancroft , born (Ohio) 1832; historian; 
author of “The Native Races of the Pacific States,” “History 
of the Pacific States,” and “ The Early American Chroniclers.” 

John Bascom, born (New York) 1832; philosopher; president 
Wisconsin University; author of “Psychology,” “^Ethetics,” 
“ Political Economy,” “ Science, Philosophy and Religion,” 
“Natural Theology,” “The Science of Mind,” “The Words of 
Christ,” etc. 

James De Mille (New Brunswick) 1833-1880; humorous 
novelist; author of the “ Cryptogram,” “ The American 
Baron,” “Comedy of Terrors,” “The Dodge Club,” “The 
Lady of the Ice,” “The B. O. W. C.,” a series of Boys’ Books, 
etc. 

Edmund Clarence Stedman, born (Connecticut) 1833 ; 
poet and critic; author “Alice of Monmouth;” “ The Blame¬ 
less Prince;” etc. Among his finest poems are “Pan in Wall 
Street,” and “ The Lord’s-Day Gale.” “ His Victorian Poets” is 
a work of much value, as an example of dispassionate, conscien¬ 
tious and skillful literary judgment. 

George E. Waring , born (Connecticut) 1833; sanitarian ; 
author “The Sanitary Drainage of Houses and Towns;” “A 
Farmer’s Vacation;” “The Bride of the Rhine;” “Tyrol and 
the Skirt of the Alps;” “ Village Improvements, and Farm Vil¬ 
lage,” etc. 

Wm. Adolphus Wheeler, (1833-1874); lexicographer; editor 
“Webster’s Dictionary,” and author “Noted Names of Fic¬ 
tion;^ “ Familiar Allusions,” etc. 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


317 


Charles Farrar Browne , “Artemus Ward” (1834-1867); 
humorist; author “ Artemus Ward, his Book;” “Artemus 
Ward Among the Mormons;” “ArtemusWard in London,”etc. 

Robert Green Ingersoll, born (New York), 1833; freethinker; 
author of several works attacking Christianity. 

Richard Realf, (1834-1878); poet. “Indirection”«and “Nil 
Nisi Bonum,” are among his most striking poems. 

Frederick Louis Ritter, born (France) 1834, writer on music; 
author “ Music in England;” “Music in America;” “History 
of Music in the form of Lectures;” and “ Student's History of 
Music.” 

David Swing, born (Ohio) 1830; Presbyterian theologian; 
author of “ Sermons,” “ Club Essays,” “ Truths for To-day,” 
“ Motives of Life,” etc. A fearless leader of liberal thought in 
his adopted city, Chicago, Ill. 

Wm. Swinton, born (Scotland) 1834; philologist and 
military historian; author of “ Rambles Among Wbrds,” 
“ Twelve Decisive Battles of the War,” “ Campaigns of the 
Army of the Potomac,” a clear, able narrative, and numerous 
educational text-books. 

Lyman Abbott, born (Massachusetts) 1835; religious 
writer; editor of “Christian Union;” author of “Jesus of 
Nazareth,” “Old Testament Shadows of New Testament 
Truths,” “ Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament,” 
“ A Layman's Story,” etc. 

L. Clarke Davis, born (Maryland) 1835; novelist, essayist 
and miscellaneous writer; editor “ Philadelphia Inquirer; au¬ 
thor “The Stranded Ship,” etc. 

Edward Greey, born (England; 1835; litterateur; author 
of the plays “ Yendome and Mirah; ” the novel, “ Blue Jackets,” 
several works relating to Japan; “The Golden Lotus,” “Young 
Americans in Japan,” “ The Wonderful City of Tokio,” “The 
Bear Worshippers of Yezo,” etc., and one of the translators of 
the Japanese romance, “ The Loyal Ronius.” 

John Janies Piatt , born (Ohio) 1835; poet; author of 


318 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


“Landmarks,” “Western Windows,” “Poems of House and 
Home,” etc. His finest poem, “ The Morning Street,” is grace¬ 
ful and poetic. 

Mrs. Celia (Leighton) Thaxter, born (Hew Hampshire) 
1835; poetess; author of “Drift Weed,” “Poems,” “Poems 
for Children,” and a prose volume, “ Among the Isles of Shoals,” 
“ Courage,” “ Kittery Church Yard,” “The Spaniards' Graves,” 
and the “ Watch of Boon Island” are some of her finest poems. 

Moses Coit Tyler, born (Connecticut) 1835; literary his¬ 
torian; author of “ The Brownville Papers,” etc., and a “ His¬ 
tory of American Literature;” in two volumes. 

Thomas Bailey Aldrich, born (Hew Hampshire) 1836; 
poet and novelist; author of the novels “ Prudence Palfrey,' 
“The Queen of Sheba,” and “ The Still-Watei Tragedy,” “ The 
Story of a Bad Boy,” a volume of sketches containing the famous 
“ Marjorie Daw,” etc. Among his finest poems are “ Spring 
in Hew England,” “ Baby Bell,” and the “ XII Sonnets.” 

Wm. L. Alden, born (Massachusetts) 1837; humorist; 
author of “Domestic Explosions,” “ Shooting Stars,” “ Moral 
Pirates,” “Cruise of the Canoe Club,” “Life of Christopher 
Columbus,” etc. 

Arthur Gilman, born (Illinois) 1837; Chaucerian editor; 
author of “First Steps in English Literature,” “Seven His¬ 
toric Ages,” “ First Steps in English History,” “History of the 
American People,” etc. 

Francis Bret Harte, born (Hew York) 1837; poet and 
novelist; author of the novel, “Gabriel Conroy;” the play, 
“ Two Men of Sandy Bar; ” “ East and West Poems,” “ Echoes 
of the Foot Hills,” and the volumes of short stories, entitled 
“The Luck of Roaring Camp,” “Drift from Two Shores,” 
“ Tales of the Argonauts,” “ Thankful Blossom,” “ The Story 
of a Mine,” “ Flip and Found at Blazing Star,” “ Twins of 
Table Mountain,” “Mrs. Skaggs' Husbands,” and condensed 
novels. “Dowe's Flat,” “Her Letter,” and “A Hewport 
Romance,” are among his best poems. 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


319 


Wm. Dean Howells, born (Ohio) 1837; poet and novelist; 
author of “Poems,” “Venetian Life,” “Italian Journeys,” 
“Suburban Sketches,” “Their Wedding Journey,” “AForegone 
Conclusion,” “The Lady of the Aroostock,” “The Undiscov¬ 
ered Country, “A Modern Instance,” “A Woman’s Reason,” 
etc., and the comedies, “ Out of the Question,” “A Counterfeit 
Presentment,” “The Parlor Car,” “The Sleeping Car,” etc. 

Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth ( P.rescott) Spojford, born (Maine) 
1835; novelist and poetess; author of “Azarian,” “ Sir Rohan’s 
Ghost,” etc. The “ Amber Gods ” is her most characteristic 
story. 

Mary Abigail Dodge , “ Gail Hamilton,” born (Massachu¬ 
setts) 1838; miscellaneous writer. Her chief works are “ A 
New Atmosphere,” “Gala Days,” “Woman’s Wrongs,” “Red 
Letter Days,” “ Summer Rest,” “ Battle of the Books,” “ Twelve 
Miles from a Lemon,” “ Sermons to the Clergy,” “ First Love 
is Best,” and “ What Think ye of Christ?” 

Henry George, born (Pennsylvania) 1839; political econ¬ 
omist; author of “ Progress and Poverty,” etc. 

John Hay, born (Illinois) 1839; poet; author of “Pike 
County Ballads,” and other poems, and “ Castillian Days.” Of 
his dialect poems, “Jim Bludsoe”and “Little Breeches’’are 
best known. 

James Ryder Randall , born (Maryland) 1839; lyric poet; 
author of the famous song, “Maryland, my Maryland.” 

John Torrey Morse, Jr., born (Massachusetts) 1840; author 
of “ J. Q. Adams and Thos. Jefferson” in American Statesmen, 
“ Life of Alexander Hamilton,” “Banks and Banking,” “Ar¬ 
bitration and Award,” “ Famous Trials,” etc. 

Eugene Schuyler, born (New York) 1840; historical writer; 
author of “ Peter the Great as Ruler and Reformer,” “Turkis- 
tan,” etc. 

Edward Abbott, born (Maine) 1841; editor Literary 
World; author of “Paragraph History United States,” “Para¬ 
graph History American Revolution, “Revolutionary Times,’* 

etc. 


320 


LITERATURE OF AMERICA. 


Wm. Graham Sumner, born (New Jersey) 1840; political 
economist; author of “ History American Currency,” “ What 
Social Classes Owe to Each Other,” “ Problems in Political 
Economy,” etc. 

George Alfred Townsend, born (Delaware) 1841; journalist; 
author of “Bohemian Days,” “Campaigns of a Non-Combat¬ 
ant,” “ The Entailed Hat,” Poems, etc. 

John Fislce, born (Connecticut), 1842; philosopher; author 
of “ Mytns and Myth Makers;” “ Outlines of Cosmic Philo¬ 
sophy;” “The Unseen World;” “ Darwinism and Other Essays;” 
“ Tobacco and Alcohol;” “Excursions of an Evolutionist;” etc. 

Mrs. Hattie [ Tyng ] Grisworld, born (Massachusetts), 1842; 
poetess; author of “Apple Bloosoms;” “Under the Daisies;” 
etc. 

John Habberton, born (Long Island), 1842; litterateur; 
author of “Other People’s Children;” “The Barton Experi¬ 
ment;” etc. His most noted book is “Helen’s Babies.” 

Henry James, Jr., born (New York), 1843; novelist and 
critic; author of the novels “ .Roderick Hudson;” “ The Amer¬ 
ican;” “ The Europeans;” “ Confidence;” “Washington Square;” 
and “ The Portrait of a Lady;” the novelettes, “ The Pension 
Beaurepas;” “Daisy Miller;” “An International Episode;” etc. 
“A Passionate Pilgrim and Other Tales;” “Transatlantic 
Sketches;” “French Poets and Novelists;” “Portraits of 
Places,” and “Hawthorne in English Men of Letters.” 

Reginald Heber Newton, born (Pennsylvania), 1840; Broad 
church theologian; author of “Womanhood;” “The Morals 
of Trade;” “ The Right and Wrong Uses of the Bible;” “ The 
Book of Beginings;” etc. 

Bartley Campbell , born (Pennsylvania), 1843; dramatist, 
author of “My Partner;” “ The Galley Slave;” “ Matrimony;” 
“ Siberia;” and other popular plays. 

Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, born (Massachusetts), 1844; novelist 
and poetess; author of “Gates Ajar;” “Hedged In;” “The 
Silent Partner;” “ Sealed Orders;” “ Men, Women and Ghosts;” 


UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 


321 


“ Friends, a Duet;” “ Dr. Zay;” “ Beyond the Gates;” “Poetic 
Studies;” etc. 

Maurice Thompson, born (Indiana) 1844. Novelist and 
Poet; author of “A Tallahassee Girl;” “ His Second Campaign;” 
“ Hoosier Mosaics;” a volume of sketches, “ The Witchery of 
Archery;” and songs of “ Fair Weather.” 

Julian Hawthorne, born (Massachusetts) 1846. Author of 
“ Bressant;” “ Garth;” “ Dust;” “ Idolatry;” “ Fortune’s Fool;” 
“ Beatrix Randolph;” “ Saxon Studies;” etc. 

Edgar Fawcett, born (New York) 1847. Poet and Novelist; 
author “ Poems of Fantasy and Passion;” the novels, “ A Gen¬ 
tleman of Leisure;” “A Hopeless Case;” “An Ambitious 
Woman;” etc. 

George Washington Cable, born (Louisiana) 1845. Novelist; 
author “Old Creole Days;” “The Grandissimes;” “Madame 
Delphine;” “ Dr. Sevier;” “ Simms in American Men of Let¬ 
ters;” etc. 

UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 

University education preceded the erection of colleges, 
which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from 
the expense of living at lodging-houses and inns. Collegiate or 
academic degrees were first conferred at the University of Paris 
in 1140 a.d., some authorities say not before 1215. The 
most ancient universities in Europe were those of Bologna, 
Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, and Salamanca. The Scotch uni¬ 
versities, which are as democratic in their coustitution and 
atmosphere as the English are aristocratic, are those of St. 
Andrew’s, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. These colleges 
are now non-resident. They have turned out numberless 
famous men who sprang from the ranks of the people. 

In the United States the first college established was at Cam¬ 
bridge, Mass., in 1638. It was endowed by John Harvard, and 
bears his name. It is now the most liberally endowed institu¬ 
tion of learning in the United States. The second was William 
21 


322 


EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS. 


and Mary, at Williamsburg, Virginia, founded in 1693; the third, 
Yale, New Haven, 1700; the fourth the College of New Jersey, 
at Princeton, N. J., 1746; King’s (now Columbia) at New York, 
1754; University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1785; Brown 
University, Providence, 1764; Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 
1769; Rutgerst, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. The first medi¬ 
cal school was established at Philadelphia in 1764. 

In the report of the United States commissioner of education 
for 1883-4, the number of institutions classed as universities and 
colleges is reported as 370, with 4,644 instructors and an enroll¬ 
ment of 65,522 students. Their total income from productive 
funds was $3,096,025, and from tuition fees $2,159,550. 

In addition to those named above the most important col¬ 
leges, with the dates of their founding, are as follows: Wesleyan, 
Middleton, Conn., 1830; John Hopkins, Baltimore, Md., 1876; 
Amherst, Amherst, Mass., 1821; Williams, Williamstown, Mass., 
1793; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1841; Dickinson, 
Carlisle, Pa., 1783; Washington and Lee, Lexington, Va., 1749; 
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1825; Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y., 1868; Union, Schenectady, N. Y., 1795; Bowdoin, 
Brunswick, Me., 1798; Trinity, Hartford, Conn., 1823; Univer¬ 
sity of California, Oakland, Cal., 1855. 

EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS. 

In consequence partly to the former existence of slavery and 
the constant influx of immigrants into the states there is still a 
great mass of people totally ignorant. The census of 1880 places 
the population above ten years of age at 36,761,607. Of that 
number 4,923,431, or 13.4 per cent were unable to read; and 
6,239,958 or 17 per cent were unable to write. Whites who 
could not write were 9.4 per cent, and of these the percentage 
of native whites was 8.7 against foreign 12. Of the colored 
population in the south 70 per cent could not write. In Iowa 
the per centage of illiterates was 2.4; in Nebraska 2.5; in Wyom¬ 
ing 2.6. The greatest proportion of illiterates was furnished by 


ILLITERACY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 


326 


South Carolina, where 48.2 could not read; Louisiana 45.8; 
Georgia 42.8. In the western states and territories illiteracy 
was comparatively low. California 7.1 and Nevada 7.3, stood 
with two exceptions the highest, Arizona gave 16.7 and New 
Mexico 60.2. In these last, and especially in New Mexico, a 
large proportion of the population is of Mexican descent, and a 
large number of Pueblo and Moquis Indians are included in the 
population. 

In the school year of 1883-4 the population of school age 
(which varies from 4-21 to 8-16) was reported as 16,744,402 of 
whom 10,738,192 were enrolled and 6,693,925 were in daily 
attendance at common schools. 

The general government makes no direct appropriation of 
moneys for the support of the common schools, all it does being 
to set aside for each state, upon its admission into the Union, a 
certain part of the public domain, which, according to the con¬ 
stitution of most of the states, forms a part of the permanent 
school fund, the income of which is used for the support of the 
common schools. This income is supplemented by the amounts 
received from direct taxation in each state. 

In 1883-4 the amount reported for common-school purposes 
was $113,402,630, and the amount expended $106,614,900. 

Seminaries and academies (private) in 1883-4 numbered 
1,588, with 152,354 scholars and 7,923 instructors. 

ILLITERACY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

Calling the percentage of illiteracy in the United States 14 
per cent, the proportion in other countries who cannot read or 
write is 92 per cent in India; 90 per cent, Russia; 90 per cent, 
Mexico; 45 per cent, Ireland; 30 per cent, England; 28 per cent, 
France; 11 per cent, Germany; 9 per cent, Japan, and 7 per 
cent Bavaria. (Some authorities quote China at 45 per cent, 
others at 23 per cent.) 




CHAPTER XXVIII. 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


HE traveler who gazes from an eminence on the 
bird’s-eye view which it affords, of a newly-visited 
city or locality, is glad to have his attention directed 
to the principal objects of interest in the somewhat 
confusing expanse around him, and readers of these 
pages will probably be better able to retain an 
impression on their mental vision of what follows, 
with the aid of a few general observations on some 
of the chief points concerning which it at once cre¬ 
ates a desire for fuller information. The gift of 
language enabled mankind from the earliest ages to 
communicate their thoughts and ideas to each other; 
and, long before the invention of writing, songs were composed 
by the bards or priests, to be recited in their religious ceremo¬ 
nies, or to kindle courage in battle, which were orally handed 
down from generation to generation, and formed the main 
source of all subsequent historical records and other literature. 

It must also be remembered, in connection with the rise and 
progress of English learning, that, for centuries prior to the 
Christian era, intellectual culture had attained its highest devel¬ 
opment in ancient Greece and Rome, and that, from the writings 
of the celebrated authors of those days, whose works were almost 
miraculously preserved during the dark ages, which followed 
the downfall of the Roman Empire, all that is most valuable in 
our secular knowledge and literature, except a fuller acquaint¬ 
ance with the laws of nature, has been mediately or immediately 
derived. English literature owes an immense debt to Italy in 

324 














ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


325 


this respect, but Italy of the renaissance owed the revival of let¬ 
ters to the classics of Greece and Rome. 

The Angles are supposed to have brought with them to Brit¬ 
ain, in the fifth century, a composition in praise of the deeds of 
their ancestors, called “The Gleman's Song,” which, with two 
others entitled “ The Battle of Fonsburgh,” and “ The Tale of 
Beowulf,” was afterwards committed to writing, and these con¬ 
stitute the only specimens of their language and poetry. Caed¬ 
mon was a native of Britain, and heads the roll of Anglo-Saxon 
writers. Bede, and several of his successors, wrote in Latin, 
because that language was adopted by the monks as better suited 
than the rude vernacular for literary purposes. King Alfred, 
however, endeavored to instruct his people by means of transla¬ 
tions, but his example does not seem to have been followed, the 
writers during the next two centuries having chiefly devoted 
themselves to historical annals and controversial theology. The 
earliest dawn of romance was the engrafting into their works, by 
Mapes and others, of Welsh legends, relating to King Arthur. 
The first wofk on English law appeared soon afterwards, and 
Roger Bacon's treatises on- science and general knowledge. 
Satire and criticism followed next, and the Anglo-Saxon lan¬ 
guage, which was gradually changing into Norman-English, 
began to be used more generally than Latin. 

During the fourteenth century vice and misery were depicted 
in allegorical poetry, and the spirit of inquiry was stimulated by 
travels and philosophical disquisitions. Wycliffe's translation 
of the Bible helped, at the same time, to enforce the doctrines 
of the religious reformers, and Chaucer's poetry awakened an 
interest in human character and daily life. With Chaucer, 
indeed, in any popular sense we may say that English poetry 
really begins. He stands out clear and bright on the horizon of 
English literature, and has been aptly and beautifully called the 
“ morning star,” as he has been termed the “Father of English 
poetry.” The wars of the Roses caused a decadence of litera¬ 
ture during the fifteenth century; but a revival ensued, and 


326 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


translations from the classics, as well as sonnets and love songs 
imitated from Italian poetry, considerably expanded the range 
of thought, and imparted a more elegant tone to the language. 
Miracle plays, representing scriptural events, which had been 
originated on the continent of Europe, early in the Christian 
era, and went on developing until this time, were succeeded by 
moral plays, or “ moralities,” and these both were eventually 
superseded by comedies and tragedies, whilst romances in prose 
and verse became popular. 

In the sixteenth century the diffusion of knowledge by means 
of the printing-press gave an astonishing impetus to literature; 
the effect of the reformation was to relieve the human mind from 
bondage, and to give that sense of freedom which is essential to 
the creations of genius ; the discovery of new countries, and the 
discoveries of science kindled the imagination of men; and, gen¬ 
erally, the intellectual ideas of the nation were enlarged. The 
Elizabethan era was a marvelous one: an age of miracle in every 
direction. In literature it stands distinctly preeminent. The 
Elizabethan drama, culminating in Shakespeare, has never been 
excelled in grandeur and variety, in perfect delineations of 
human nature, in wealth of incident and exuberance of wit. 
If Shakespeare may be compared to a lofty mountain peak tow¬ 
ering high above a host of others, which cluster around, their 
summits high above the clouds, we can as aptly figure the verse 
of Spenser as flowing like a majestic river in the broad valley 
below, where a thousand other streams meander in pellucid 
loveliness. Never was such an age of charming song. The prose 
compositions, in almost every branch of learning, attained a 
depth of tone, and a classic grace of style, which have served as 
models to subsequent writers. Lord Verulam — Francis Bacon 
— was one of the greatest men of genius the world has ever seen. 
No one has ever doubted his transcendant ability in science and 
philosophy. He considered all knowledge to be his province, 
and he excelled in every department of it. His character, long 
and foully aspersed, has, after more than two centuries, been 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


327 


amply vindicated, and he stands now before the world a monu¬ 
ment of all that is personally worthy and admirable, as in schol¬ 
arship and genius he was preeminently great. This magnificent 
period does not embrace Milton, and yet we may well name him 
in the same breath with those who preceded him. In his “ Par¬ 
adise Lost” he seems to write almost with the authority of 
“Inspiration.” He has so influenced the minds of men of suc¬ 
ceeding ages that they can hardly sometimes distinguish between 
his conceptions and what is given us in Holy Writ. It is rather 
of the Adam and Eve of Milton that we naturally think than of 
the Adam and Eve of Genesis. 

The civil war of the seventeenth century again almost 
silenced the voice of literature, with the exception of polemical 
treaties, and Puritanical rule suppressed the drama. The Res¬ 
toration witnessed a tremendous reaction consequent on Puritan 
severity and the dissolute manners of the .court of Charles II. 
The dramatic writers of the tifne borrowed largely from Spanish 
sources, and the drama of intrigue came into existence. It is 
sufficient to say of it that no writer of any note, with the strange 
exception of Charles Lamb, has ever had a word to say in miti¬ 
gation of its utter and vulgar beastliness. The last twenty years 
of the sixteenth century and the first thirty years of the seven¬ 
teenth run into each other as a literary period. Milton belongs 
* to the seventeenth century, and in his own province the great¬ 
est man not only of his own time, but of any time; also is of this 
century — John Bunyan. 

During the first half of the eighteenth century, which is 
known as the “Augustan” age of English literature, the poeti¬ 
cal compositions, although perfect in meter, were deficient in 
passion and grace. The style of the chief prose writers, how¬ 
ever, was simple and vigorous. In the pext generation several 
of the noblest specimens of English writing were produced, and 
the poetry became more fervid and natural. Works of fiction 
took the place of tragedies and comedies, while history, science 
and philosophy were more generally studied and popularized. 


328 . 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


The newspaper press and periodical criticism oecame from this 
time powerful influences in guiding public opinion, and satire 
the keenest weapon for assailing the vices both of the rich and 
the £>oor. The stirring incidents of the first French revolution 
gave birth to an entirely new development of mental activity, 
which is still perceptible in the greater freedom of thought and 
in the widened scope of the literature of the present century. 
More practical than that of any preceding age, it at the same 
time indicates an intellectual energy, and, excepting the effu¬ 
sions of sensational novelists, a moral pureness which should earn 
for many of the writers, including some now living, an enduring 
fame in the estimation of posterity. 

At the present time in our own community there is an espe¬ 
cial stir in the direction of an acquaintance with English litera¬ 
ture. It is an addition to its desirability as a mode of refinement 
and culture in society, insisted on at every educational test and 
competitive examination. It will, in the coming generation, be 
as indispensable as a knowledge of spelling and grammar. The 
following synopsis of the names of the most celebrated poets and 
prose writers, with the date of their death, their social position, 
and the titles of their principal works, may prove useful, not 
only to students but to all who are anxious to acquire a general 
idea of the gradual expansion of thought and development of 
literary talent up to recent years. 

Caedmon (died 680). The earliest known Anglo-Saxon whose 
works are preserved, was a monk at Whitley, and wrote “ A 
Paraphrase " in verse from the Bible, selecting the most vivid 
and picturesque incidents as his themes. 

Bede (died 735). Named The Venerable , the father of Eng¬ 
lish learning, spent his life in a monastery at Jarrow, where he 
obtained great repute as a scholar and teacher. He wrote in 
Latin “ A Treatise on The Nature of Things," and “ A Church 
History of the English Nation." 

Alenin (died 804). Was a school-master at York, and, after 
a journey to Rome, resided for some years at the court of Char- 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


329 


lemagne. He was the author of several works in Latin, on 
theology, history, mathematics, poetry and rhetoric. 

Joannes Scotus Erigena (died 875). Was a native of Ireland, 
and the greatest philosopher of the dark ages. He wrote a 
treatise on “Natural Science,” several theological commentaries, 
and some poetry. 

King Alfred, Tlie Great (died 901). Was taught by his 
mother, and translated the works of several Latin writers for 
the instruction of his subjects. He is also supposed to have 
originated the first “Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.” 

Aelfric (died 1005). A monk, and afterwards Archbishop of 
Canterbury, wrote “Homilies” on the doctrine of the Anglo- 
Saxon church, and made translations from the Old Testament. 

William of Malmesbury (died 1143). An Oxford priest; 
wrote “ A History of the Early Kings and Prelates of England ” 
in Latin, and other works. 

Geoffrey of Monmouth (died 1154). Bishop of St. Asaph; 
compiled “A History of Britain,” based upon older records and 
Welsh Legends, which became very popular. 

Layamon (died 1190). A Worcestershire priest; was the 
author of a metrical “ History of the Colonization of Britain,” 
named “ The Brut,” which is valuable as a specimen of the trans¬ 
ition from Anglo-Saxon to Early English. 

Ranulf De Glanville (died 1190). Chief Justice of Henry II; 
compiled the earliest “ Treaties on The Laws and Customs of 
England.” 

Walter Mayes (died 1210). Archdeacon of Oxford; wrote 
“The Poem of Golias,” a satire on the clergy, “Court Anec¬ 
dotes,” containing sketches of the manners of his time, and con¬ 
tributions to “The Bomances of King Arthur,” whose exploits 
were sung by the Welsh bards and became the theme for many 
mediaeval and modern poems. 

Alexander of Hales (died 1245). A friar; was the author of 
an exhaustive “ Theological Treatise,” which was adopted in all 
the school of Christendom. 


530 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


Matthew Paris (died 1259). A monk of St. Alban’s; wrote 
“ A History of the World” from the Creation, which included 
a record of events in his own lifetime, and is considered a very 
valuable work. 

Roger Bacon (died 1292), a Franciscan monk; devoted him¬ 
self to chemical, physical and mathematical science. His great 
work is his “Opus Majus,” the encyclopedia of the thirteenth 
century. He was also acquainted with astronomy and geogra¬ 
phy and several ancient languages. 

Robert of Gloucester {died 1299), a monk; composed a rhym¬ 
ing “ Chronicle of English History,” consisting of more than ten 
thousand lines in the vernacular language of his time. 

John Duns Scotus (died 1308), a professor at Oxford; was 
an eminent scholar, and earned the name of the “subtle Doctor.” 
He wrote “Commentaries” on theological and philosophical 
questions. 

Nicholas Trivet (died 1328), a Dominican monk; was the 
author of a well-written and trustworthy series of “ Historical 
Annals,” embracing a period of nearly two centuries. 

Robert Manning (died 1338), a Lincolnshire monk; was the 
author of a rhyming “ Historical Chronicle ” in quaint early 
English, evincing considerable poetical power. 

William of Occam (died 1347), a Franciscan monk; earned 
great reputation as a scholar and philosopher. He wrote several 
“Theological Treatises,” and supported the German Emperor 
in his controversies with the Pope. 

Wm. Landland (died 1360), an Oxford fellow; was the author 
of an allegorical poem entitled, “The Vision of Piers Plow¬ 
man, ” in which he satirizes the corruptions of the Church, and 
depicts various types of human character. The metre is alliter¬ 
ative, several words in each line commencing with the same 
letter. 

Ranulf Higden (died 1367), a Benedictine monk; wrote “A 
Chronicle,” in Latin, called “Polychronicon,” a translation of 
which by Trevisa, was afterwards completed and printed by 
Caxtou. 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


331 


Sir John Mandeville (died 1372), a physician; was the 
author of one of the earliest known works in English prose, 
consisting of a narrative of his “ Travels in the East,” during 
the peoiod of 34 years. 

John of For dun (died 1384), a priest at Aberdeen, Scotland; 
wrote “ A Chronicle of Scotland” from the time of Noah. 

John Wicliffe (died 1384), Rector of Lutterworth; wrote 
treatises against the errors of Papacy, and made the first complete 
“Translation of the English Bible.” 

John Barbour {died 1395), Archdeacon of Aberdeen, was the 
first Scotch poet who used the English language. He wrote 
“ The Bruce,” a chronicle of the career of the famous king of 
that name. 

Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), a courtier; established his 
fame as the first great English poet by his “Canterbury Tales,” 
a vivid picture of society in the fourteenth century. 

John Gomer (died 1408), a lawyer; exposed the vices of all 
classes in two poems, entitled “ The Voice of One Crying,” and 
“The Confessions of a Lover.” 

John Lydgate (died 1430), a Benedictine monk, was a scholar 
and a poet. His three chief works are “ Troy Book,” “ The 
Story of Thebes,” imitated from Chaucer’s “Fall of Princes;” 
and “ London Lickpenny,” a satire. 

King James I. of Scotland (died 1436), while a prisoner in 
Windsor Castle, England, composed a poem entitled “The 
King’s Quhair ” (book), in praise of the lady whom he afterwards 
married. 

Reginald Pecock (died 1450), Bishop of Chichester, was one 
of the first advocates for liberty of thought on unessential relig¬ 
ious doctrines. 

Sir John Fortesque (died 1485), Chief Justice to Henry VI.; 
wrote a learned treatise on “The Common Law of England.” 

Robert Henryson (died 1495), a Scottish poet; was the author 
of “ The Testament of Cresseid,” a metrical translation of ^sop’s 
Fables, and some ballads. 


332 


ENGLISH LITEKATUKE. 


John Colet (died 1519), Dean of St. Paul’s; was a zealous pro¬ 
moter of the revival of learning, and wrote several theological 
and classical treatises. 

William Dunbar (died 1520), of St. Andrew’s University, 
Scotland; commemorated the marriage of James IV. in a poem 
“ The Thistle and the Rose,” and wrote a satire named “ The 
dance of the Seven Deadly Sins.” 

Gawin Douglas (died 1522), Bishop of Dunkeld, Scotland; 
produced the first translation of Virgil’s iEneid. 

Sir Thomas More (died 1535), Chancellor to Henry VIII.; 
wrote “Utopia,” an imaginary form of government, in Latin, 
and some controversial tracts in elegant English. 

William Tyndale (died 1536), a preacher to the English Fac¬ 
tory at Antwerp; made “A Translation of the Hew Testament,” 
and was the author of several theological treatises. 

Sir William Wyatt (died 1542), a courtier; composed “Son¬ 
nets,” imitated from Italian poetry, in more polished language 
than any previous writer. 

Henry Howard , Earl of Surrey (died 1547), wrote elegant 
“ Love Sonnets,” and translated part of the iEneid in blank verse. 

Alexander Barclay (died 1552), a Benedictine monk; was 
the translator of “ The Ship of Fools,” a celebrated German 
satire. 

John Leland (died 1552), Chaplin to Henry VIII., and 
the first English Antiquary; wrote “An Itinerary ” of his travels, 
and other works. 

Sir David Lindsay (died 1555), a courtier (Scotland), was 
the author of “ The Dream,” and other satirical poems. 

Hugh Latimer (died 1555), Bishop of Worcester; was cele¬ 
brated for his quaint “ Sermons in Favour of the Reforma¬ 
tion.” 

. Thomas Cranmer (died 1556), Archbishop of Canterbury; 
wrote several “Controversial Treatises.” 

John Bale (died 1563), Bishop of Ossary; wrote “Miracle 
Plays,” and compiled a “Summary of British Authors” in 
Latin. 


English literature. 


333 


Nicholas Udall (died 1564), head master at Eton; composed 
the first English comedy, called “ Ralph Roister Doister.” 

John Heyioood (died 1565), a courtier; was the author of 
several dramatic “Interludes,” and a large number of “Epi¬ 
grams.” 

Roger Ascham (died 1568), public orator at Cambridge. 
Wrote a work on education entitled “ The Schoolmaster/’ and 
was celebrated for his Latin compositions. 

Miles Coverdale (died 1568), Bishop of Exeter; took 
part in “ A Translation of the Bible,” and wrote several works 
against the Roman Catholic doctrines. 

George Gascoigne (died 1577); a law student; translated 
from Ariosto the first English prose comedy named “ The 
Supposes.” He was the author of “Steel Glas” and some 
other satires. 

Sir Philip Sidney (died 1586); wrote a poem entitled 
“Arcadia,” several sonnets in elegant English, and “The 
Defence of Poesy.” 

John Foxe (died 1587), an Oxford Fellow; was the author 
of “ Moralities ” in Latin, and “ The Book of Martyrs,” a man¬ 
ual of Protestantism. 

Cristopher Marlowe (died 1593), a Cambridge graduate; 
“wrote Tamburlaine the Great,” “ Doctor Faustus,” and sev¬ 
eral other dramatic works of great power. 

Edmund Spenser (died 1599), a courtier; was the author 
of a celebrated allegorical poem, entitled “ The Fairie Queen ” 
and “ A View of Ireland.” 

Richard Hooker (died 1600), Master of the Temple; is 
known for his work on “Ecclesiastical Polity,” defending the 
Church of England against the dogmatism of the Presbyterians. 

John Stow (died 1605), a tailor; was the author of a 
popular “ Summary of English Chronicles,” and “A Survey of 
London.” 

John Lyly (died 1606), a courtier; wrote “Euphues, or the 
Anatomy of Wit,” and “ Euphues and his England,” as well as 


334 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


several plays. He adopted an affected style which became fash¬ 
ionable and was termed “ Euphuism.” 

Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset (died 1608) ; wrote several 
poems and assisted in the composition of the first English 
tragedy, called “Ferrex and Porrex or Gorboduc,” founded on 
early British legends. 

Francis Beaumont (1585-1615) and John Fletcher (died 1625) 
were the joint authors of more than fifty brilliant and romantic 
comedies and tragedies, passages from which are still frequ ently 
quoted. 

William Shakespeare (1563-1616); commenced life as an 
actor, and wrote thirty-seven tragedies and comedies, which hold 
the highest place in English literature, and have obtained an 
unperishable fame in every civilized country. 

Sir Walter Raleigh (died 1618) ; was the author of “ A 
History of the World,” and several short poems. 

Samuel Daniel (died 1619), a courtier ; composed a poem 
called “ Musophilus,” several odes and sonnets, “ A History of 
England,” and “ A Defence of Rhyme. ” He was called “ The 
Gentle Daniel.” 

William Camden (died 1623), head master of Westminster 
School; wrote a work of considerable merit in Latin entitled 
“ Britannia,” giving an account of the British Isles from the 
earliest ages. 

Thomas Lodge (died 1625), a physician, wrote several dramas 
and Rosalinde, a novel, upon which Shakespeare founded his 
play of “ As You Like it.” 

Francis Bacon , Lord Verulam (died 1626); wrote a series 
of philosophical and other treatises of great merit under the 
general title of “Instauratio Magna.” 

Michael Drayton (1563-1631), an Oxford graduate; was the 
author of “ Polyolbion,” a metrical guide book to England and 
Wales, “The Battle of Agincourt,” and other historical poems, 
and “ Nymphidia,” a fairy tale. 

Ben Jonson (died 1637), was originally an actor ; he became 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


335 


poet-laureate, and wrote “ Every Man in His Humour,” and 
several other plays, masques, and lyrical poems, full of vigor 
and fancy. 

Rev. George Herbert (died 1632); wrote “The. Country 
Parson,” and some “Sacred Poems,” which are still popular. 

Edward Fairfax (died 1632), son of a baronet; translated 
Tasso’s “ Jerusalem Delivered,” and wrote a treatise on 
“ Demonology.” 

George Chapman (died 1634), an Oxford graduate; wrote 
“Eastward Ho!” a comedy depicting London life, and many 
other plays. He also translated Homer and Hesiod. 

Rev. Robert Burton (died 1639) ; was the author of a well- 
known work, entitled “The Anatomy of Melancholy.” 

Philip Massinger (died 1640), who was educated at Oxford ; 
wrote “The Virgin Martyr,” and other plays, in purer taste 
than many of his contemporaries. 

William Drummond (died 1649), an Edinburgh graduate ; 
was the author of “A History of the Five Jameses,” and 
numerous poems, sonnets and elegies. 

John Selden (died 1654), M. P. for Oxford University ; 
wrote “ Titles of Honour,” and other works of great merit on 
constitutional and legal questions. 

Rev. Thomas Fuller (died 1661) ; wrote “The Worthies of 
England,” “A Church History,” and some other quaint and 
scholarly works. 

Jeremy Taylor (died 1667), Bishop of Dawn ; was a fluent 
theological writer, the title of his best works being “ Ductor 
Dulutantium,” “ Holy Living,” and “ Holy Dying.” 

Sir William Davenant (died 1668), poet-laureate ; was the 
author of a tragedy named “Albovine,” several masques, and 
an epic poem entitled “Gondibert.” 

William Prynne (died 1669), a Puritan lawyer; wrote 
“Histrio Mastrix,” a virulent pamphlet against the stage, and 
a number of political treatises. 

John Milton (died 1674), the son of a scrivener; attained 


336 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


the highest rank as a poet by his “ Paradise Lost ” and “ Para¬ 
dise Regained ”; he wrotealso “ Comus,”a masque ; “Lycidas,” 
an elegaic poem, and political and theological works. 

Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (died 1674) ; wrote “A 
History of the Rebellion,” which contains some cleverly executed 
descriptive portraits. 

Thomas Holies (died 1679), secretary to Lord Bacon; wrote 
several works on “The Science of Government,” in a very 
republican spirit. 

Samuel Butler (died 1680), the son of a farmer ; was the 
author of “ Hudibras,” a celebrated satire against the Purita 
full of wit and learning. 

Sir Thomas Browne (died 1682), a physician; wrote “Relgio 
Medici,” and other works in a rich and impressive style, which 
gained him considerable reputation. 

Izadk Walton (died 1683), a hosier; is known as the author 
of “ The Complete Angler,” and some biographies. 

Thomas Otway (died 1685), an actor, wrote “ Venice Pre¬ 
served,” and several other course but thrilling plays. 

George Villiers “Duke of Buckingham,” (died 1688), was 
the author of a comedy, entitled “ The Rehearsal,” and some 
other plays. 

John Bunyan (died 1688), a tinker, wrote “The Pilgrim's 
Progress,” a religious allegory, which has been translated into a 
greater number of languages than any other book except the 
Bible. 

Richard Baxter (died 1691), a Puritan preacher; wrote 
“ The Saints' Everlasting Rest,” and many other theological 
treatises. 

John Dry den (died 1700), poet-laureate to Charles II.; was 
the author of numerous plays, several controversial and satirical 
poems, including “Absalom and Ahithophel,” and many other 
works in verse and prose. He also made translations from 
Virgil, and some other Greek and Latin poets. One of his 
best works is “ An Ode to St. Cecilia's Day.” 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


337 


Samuel Pepys (died 1703), Secretary to the Admiralty; kept 
“ A Diary,” which affords amusing information as to the man¬ 
ners and customs of the age in which he lived. 

John Locke (died 1704), a country gentleman; wrote “Let¬ 
ters on Toleration,” “ An Essay Concerning Human Under¬ 
standing,” and several treatises on civil government, education, 
and other subjects. 

John Evelyn (died 1706), a member of the Royal Society; 
was the author of “ Sylvia,” a discourse on forest trees, several 
works on the “Fine Arts,” and a “Diary,” containing curious 
glimpses of society in the seventeenth century. 

George Farquhar (died 1707), educated at Trinity College, 
Dublin; became an actor, and wrote “The Beaux Stratagem,” 
and other plays. 

Rev. Thomas Parnell (died 1717), was a contibutor to 
periodicals, and the author of a poem named “ The Hermit.” 

Nicholas Rowe (died 1718), poet-laureate to George I.; was the 
author of “Jane Shore,” and other plays. 

Joseph Addison (died 1719), Secretary of State; was the 
principal contributor to “The Spectator,” and also a dramatist 
and poet. 

Matthew Prior (died 1721), a diplomatist; wrote “ Henry 
and Emma,” and other poems, several tales and some epigrams. 

Rev. Jeremy Collier (died 1726), wrote an essay on the ■ 
“Immorality and Profaneness of the Stage,” and political 
pamphlets. 

Sir Isaac Newton (died 1727), • immortalized himself as the 
first demonstrator of “ The Laws of Gravitation,” and wrote 
numerous scientific and philosophical treatises. 

Sir Richard Steele (died 1729), contributed to three periodi¬ 
cals; “ The Tattler,” “ The Spectator,” and “The Guardian,” 
and was the author of several comedies, and political essays. 

Daniel Defoe (died 1731), a merchant; was the first English 
novelist, and his “ Robinson Crusoe,” is still popular. He was 
also a satirical poet and a political writer. 


338 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


John Gay (died 1732), a courtier; was the author of “ The 
Beggar’s Opera,” and wrote comedies, farces and fables." 

John Arbuthnot (died 1735), a physician; wrote a humorous 
“ History of John Bull,” and was joint author with Pope and 
Swift of a satirical essay, entitled “ Martinus Scriblerus.” 

Alexander Pope (died .1744), the son of a linen draper; was 
the author of “ An Essay on Man;” “ The Dunciad,” and many 
other critical and satirical poems ; he also translated Homer. 

Jonathan Swift (died 1745), Dean of St. Patrick’s, Dublin; 
was the author of numerous compositions in verse and prose, in 
almost every style of literature. One of his best known works 
is “ Gulliver’s Travels.” 

James Thomson (died 1748), son of a Presbyterian minister; 
wrote a series of poems, called “ The Seasons,” and several 
tragedies. 

Rev. Isaac Watts (died 1748), a dissenting minister; was the 
author of well-known hymns, amongst which are “ The Busy 
Bee;” “ The Sluggard,” and many other hymns for children. 
He also wrote some theological and philosophical essays. 

Joseph Butler (died 1752), Bishop of Bristol; was the author 
of “An Analogy of Religion;” and his “Sermons on Moral 
Philosophy ” hold a high place in church literature. 

Henry Fielding (died 1754), a law student; was the author 
of “ Tom Jones,” “Joseph Andrews,” and other novels; he also 
wrote plays and political pamphlets. 

William Collins (died 1756), the son of a hatter; was the 
author of “An Ode to the Passions,” and some other poems. 

Colley Cibber (died 1757), an actor and poet-laureate; wrote 
“The Careless Husband,” and several other plays. 

Allan Ramsay (1686-1758), apprenticed to a wig-maker> 
and afterwards a bookseller; wrote “ The Gentle Shepherd;” 
“The Vision,” and a collection of miscellaneous poems. 

Samuel Richardson (died 1761), printer; was the author of 
“ Clarissa Harlowe,” “ Sir Charles Grandison,” and several other 
novels. 

22 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


339 


Lady Mary Worthy Montague (died 1762), wrote several 
poems, and described her ••'Travels in the East” in a series of 
letters which are still read with pleasure. 

Rev. Edivard Young (died 1765), was the author of “ Night 
Thoughts,” several satires and three tragedies. 

Rev. Laivrence Sterne (died 1768), wrote two humorous narra¬ 
tives, entitled “Tristram Shandy,” and “A Sentimental Jour¬ 
ney,” and some sermons and satires. 

Thomas Chatterton (died 1770), the son of a sexton; com¬ 
posed “Legendary Histories,” and miscellaneous poems; he died 
in his eighteenth year, unequalled by any poet of his age. 

Marie Alcenside (died 1770), a physician; wrote “The Pleas¬ 
ures of the Imagination,” a poem of much merit. 

Thomas Gray (died 1771), a professor at Cambridge; was the 
author of the famous “Elegy in a Country Church-yard,” and 
several odes. 

Tobias Smollett (died 1771), a naval surgeon; wrote “Rod¬ 
erick Random;” “ Peregrine Pickle,” and some other satirical 
novels. 

Oliver Goldsmith (died 1774), a medical student; was the 
author of “The Vicar of Wakefield,” several poems, a play 
entitled “She Stoops to Conquer,” and some historical works. 

David Hume (died 1776), compiled “ A History of England,” 
and wrote several political and philosophical treatises. 

Samuel Johnson (died 1784), the son of a bookseller; com¬ 
piled a “Dictionary,” and wrote “The Lives of the Poets,” a 
tragedy, a novel, and essays on various subjects. 

Adam Smith (died 1790), a professor at Glasgow University; 
was the author of “ The Wealth of Nations,” a treatise on politi¬ 
cal economy. 

Rev. John Wesley (died 1791), was the author of a “Journal;” 
a translation of “The Works of Thomas a Kempis,” and some 
theological treatises. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds (died 1792), a painter; wrote “Dis¬ 
course on Painting,” and “ Remarks on Pictures of the Dutch 
and Flemish Schools.” 


340 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


Edward Gibbon (died 1794), the son of a country gentleman; 
devoted many years to a history of “ The Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire,” which has been translated into almost every 
European language. 

James Boswell (died 1795), a Scotch country gentleman; was 
a companion of Dr. Johnson, and wrote his life. 

James MacPherson (died 1796), a Scotch schoolmaster; wrote 
“ Ossian.” 

Robert Burns (died 1796), tne most famous of Scotch poets; 
wrote “The Cotter's Saturday Night;” “Tam O'Shanter;” 
“ Auld Lang Syne,” and many sentimental and patriotic songs, 
popular now all over the world. 

Horace Walpole (died 1797), M. P.; was the author of a novel 
entitled, “The Castle of Otranto;” “Anecdotes of Painters,” 
and several other works; he was also celebrated as a letter 
writer. 

Edmund Burke (died 1797), M. P., for Wendover; wrote 
“Essays on the Sublime and the Beautiful.” His fame rests 
chiefly on his eloquent speeches in Parliament. 

William Cowper (died 1800), was the author of a poem, 
“The Task,” as well as several other poems and moral satires; 
his is the “History of John Gilpin.” 

Rev. John Home (died 1808), a Scotch minister; was the 
author of the once popular tragedy “ Douglas.” 

Charles Dibdin (died 1814), a musician; wrote “ Poor Jack” 
and many other favorite ballads and sea songs. 

Richard Brinsley Sheridan (died 1817), Under-secretary of 
State; wrote three of the wittiest farces in the English language: 
“ The Rivals,” “ The School for Scandal,” and “ The Critic.” 

Sir Philip Francis (died 1818), is the reputed author of 
“Junius.” 

3ohn Keats (died 1821), a medical student; wrote “ Endymi- 
on,” and an “Ode to a Nightingale,” and many other elegant- 
poems. 

Percy Bysshe Shelley (died 1822), eldest son of a baronet; was 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


341 


a gifted writer with extreme revolutionary ideas; his best poet¬ 
ical works are “Prometheus Unbound,”and “ Cenci;” his “ Ode 
to a Skylark” is well known; he was also the author of several 
romances and translations from the Greek classics. 

Lord Byron (died 1824), was a poet of extraordinary genius, 
power and versatility; his most popular works being “ Childe 
Harold,” and “Don Juan.” 

Sir Walter Scott (died 1832); was the prince of novelists, and 
the author of numerous romantic poems. 

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (died 1834), the son of a clergyman; 
became a poet, a critic, and a metaphysician; his best works being 
“ Christabel,” “ The Ancient Mariner,” and “ Aids to Reflec¬ 
tion.” 

Charles Lamb (died 1834), a clerk in the India office; wrote 
“ Essays of Elia,” a clever series of humorous sketches, and 
“Tales from Shakespeare.” 

Robert Southey (died 1843), poet-laureate; was the author of 
“Thalaba;” “The Curse of Kehama;”“TheDoctor,* and other 
poems. 

Thomas Campbell (died 1844), son of a merchant: established 
his fame as a poet by his “ Pleasures of Hope.” 

Thomas Hood (died 1845), son of a bookseller; wrote “The 
Bridge of Sighs;” “ The Song of a Shirt,” and many other pa¬ 
thetic and humorous poems. 

Rev. Richard H. Borham (died 1845); was the author of “ The 
Ingoldsby Legends.” 

Lady Nairne (died 1845), was the authoress of “ Caller Her¬ 
rin;” “The Auld House*” “The Laird o' Cockpen,” and other 
popular lyrical poetry. 

Isaac Disraeli (died 1848), son of a retired merchant; wrote 
“ The Curiosities of Literature,” and other works on the same 
subject. 

Countess of Blessington (died 1849), wrote her “Conversations 
with Byron,” and several novels, travels, sketches and memoirs. 

Maria Edgeworth (died 1849), the daughter of a mechanical 


343 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


engineer; was the authoress of “ Belinda,” and many other ad¬ 
mirable tales of Irish life. 

Hartley Coleridge (died 1849), an Oxford scholar; contributed 
to “ Blackwood,” and other magazines; he also wrote “ The 
Lives of Northern Worthies,” and “ The Life of Massinger,” a 
dramatist. 

Captain Marryat (died 1849), R. N.; wrote “Midshipman 
Easy;” “Peter Simple;” “Jacob Faithful,” and many other 
naval novels. 

William Wordsworth (died 1850), poet-laureate; was the 
author of “ The Excursion,” and numerous other poems of great 
beauty. 

Joanna Baillie (died 1851), the daughter of a Presbyterian 
minister; wrote a series of “ Plays on the Passions,” and some 
miscellaneous poetry. 

Thomas Moore (died 1852), educated for the law; was the 
author of “Irish Melodies,” “ Lalla Rookh,” and many other 
poems. 

James Montgomery (died 1854), of humble origin; wrote 
“The Wanderer in Switzerland;” “ The Grave,” and other de 
scriptive and miscellaneous poetry. 

Samuel Rogers (died 1855), a banker; wrote “ The Pleasures 
of Memory,” and other poems. 

Henry Hallam (died 1859), an Oxford graduate; was the 
author of a “Constitutional History of England,” and an “In¬ 
troduction to the Literature of Europe,” both of which evince 
great industry, acuteness, and impartiality. 

Lord Macaulay (died 1859); wrote “The Lays of Ancient 
Rome;” a “ History of England,” and numerous other essays and 
poems; he also contributed to several periodicals, and for bril¬ 
liancy of style and elegant diction holds the highest rank among 
English writers. 

Thomas de Quincey (died 1859), the son of a merchant; was the 
author of “ Confessions of an Opium Eater,” and an impassioned 
and critical writer in several periodicals. 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


343 


J. H. Leigh Hunt (died 1859), the son of a solicitor; was a 
journalist, poet and essayist; he is best known as the editor of 
the London Journal. 

General Sir William Napier (died 1860); wrote a “ History of 
the Peninsular War," and other works on India. 

Mrs. Barrett Browning (died 1861); was the highly educated 
and talented authoress of “Seraphim;” “Aurora Leigh,” and 
several other lyrical poems. 

J. Sheridan Knowles (died 1 62), an actor; produced “The 
Hunchback,” “ Love Chase,” and some other plays. 

William Makepeace Thackeray (died 1863), the son of an 
Indian civil servant; contributed to “Punch,” and several mag¬ 
azines, and earned great reputation as the author of “ Vanity 
Fair,” “ Pendennis,” and several other novels. 

Mrs. Trollope (died 1863), was the authoress of “Travels in 
America,” and numerous novels. 

Richard Whately (died 1863), Archbishop of Dublin; wrote 
several valuable works on “Logic” and ts Rhetoric.” 

Walter Savage Landor (died 1864), having squandered his 
estate, became an author, and wrote “Imaginary Conversa¬ 
tions,” which are full of scholarship and humor, as well as poems 
and essays. 

Rev. John Kelle (died 1865), was the author of “ The Chris¬ 
tian Year,” and several other theological works. 

Mrs. Gaskell (died 1865), the wife of a Unitarian minister, 
wrote “Mary Barton,” and other novels depicting artisan life. 

William Aytoun (died 1866), a graduate of Edinburgh; was 
the author of “ The Execution of Montrose,” and several other 
national lays and ballads. 

Sir Archibald Alison (died 1869), devoted many years to the 
compilation of “ A History of Europe,” which has a world-wide 
popularity. 

Michael Faraday (died 1867), of humble origin; attained 
great eminence as a lecturer and writer on chemistry and elec¬ 
tricity.” 


344 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


Henry Brougham, (died 1868), Lord Chancellor; achieved a 
great reputation as an orator, and was the author of “ Lives of 
Men of Letters,” and several works on theology, metaphysics 
and science. 

William Carleton (died 1869), of humble origin; wrote 
“ Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry,” and other humor¬ 
ous and pathetic tales. 

Charles Dickens (died 1870), the son of a civil servant; was 
the author of “The Pickwick Papers,” and a series of popular 
novels, chiefly delineating the life of the masses. 

Sir John Herschel (died 1871), wrote many treatises on astron¬ 
omy and other scientific subjects. 

Sir Roderick Murchison (died 1871); was president of the 
Geographical Society, and the author of several works on 
geology. 

Henry Alford (died 1871), Dean of Canterbury; wrote “The 
School of the Heart,” and other poems, and was an eminent 
Greek scholar. 

Charles James Lever (died 1872), a physician; wrote “Harry 
Lorrequer,” “Charles O'Malley,” “Jack Hinton,” and many 
other brilliantly humorous Irish novels. 

Mrs . Somerville (died 1872); was the authoress of “The Con¬ 
nection of the Physical Sciences,” “ Physical Geography,” and 
other popular scientific works. 

John Stuart Mill , M.P . (died 1873); was the author of 
numerous works on political economy, with a strong demo¬ 
cratic and agnostic bias. 

Lord Lytton (died 1873); was a richly gifted and versatile 
writer of plays, romances and novels. “The Lady of Lyons” 
and “Money” are his best dramas, and “ The Last Days of 
Pompeii” and “Eugene Aram” are his most popular fictions. 

Rev. Charles Kingsley (died 1875); was the author of “ Alton 
Locke,” “ Yeast,” “ Hypatia,” and other novels, evincing strong 
sympathy with the working classes. 

John Forster (died 1876), a barrister; was an eminent jour- 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


345 


nalist, and the biographer of Swift, Dickens, and other men of 
note. 

Harriet Martmeau (died 1876), descended from a Huguenot 
family; was the authoress of “Illustrations of Political Econ¬ 
omy,” some historical works and travels, and biographical 
notices. 

Samuel Warren (died 1877), a barrister; wrote “ The Diary 
of a Late Physician,” “Ten thousand a Year,” and some other 
sensational novels. 

William Hepworth Dixon (died 1879), a barrister; was the 
author of “New America,” “Free Russia,” “The Switzers,” 
and other historical and biographical works. 

George Eliot (Maria Evans, 1880), was the authoress of 
“Adam Bede,” “Silas Marner,”^ “Middlemarch,” “Daniel 
Deronda,” and other novels, evincing rare genius and knowledge 
of human nature. 

Tom Taylor (died 1880), a civil servant, wrote “ The Ticket 
of Leave,” and other popular plays. 

Thomas Carlyle (died 1881), the son of a Scotch farmer; was 
a stern censor of the age he lived in, a contributor to several 
magazines, and the author of “ Sartor Resartus,” and several 
historical and philosophical works. 

Benjamin D’Israeli (died 1881), Earl of Beaconsfield; com¬ 
menced his success as a novelist with “Vivian Grey,” and 
crowned it with “ Endymion.” 

William Harrison Ainsworth (died 1882), a journalist; wrote 
“Jack Sheppard,” “The.Tower of London,” and some other 
popular novels. 

Charles Darwin (died 1882), a graduate of Cambridge; became 
famous as a naturalist and physiologist, and was the author of 
“ The Origin of the Species,” “ The Descent of Man,” and other 
scientific works. 

Anthony Trollope (died 1883), a civil servant; will be remem¬ 
bered as the author of “Dr. Thorne,” “Framley Parsonage,” 
“Barchester Towers,” and many other amusing novels and 
books of travel. 


346 


ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


Robert and William Chambers (1871-1883), the sons of a 
Scotch weaver; were the eminent publishers of the Edinburgh 
Journal, and the authors of a very complete “ History of English 
Literature,” and many educational works of great merit, and 
having an immense circulation. 

John William Colenso (died 1883), Bishop of Natal; was the 
author of some useful “Mathematical” works, of “Commen¬ 
taries on the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua,” of great ability, 
but of questionable orthodoxy. 

William Spottiswoode (died 1883), an Oxford scholar and 
printer to the Queen; wrote a treatise on the “Polarisation of 
Light,” and various works on philosophy, astronomy, popular 
education and other subjects. 


















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CITY OK JERUSALEM 




































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































CHAPTER XXIX. 


THE BIBLE —FOREIGN MISSIONS, 


RRESPECTIVE of its claims to be considered of 
Divine origin, the Bible has several peculiarities 
which render it a unique volume. Consisting of 
detached pieces, it yet presents a transcendent whole, 
so perfectly consistent in all its parts that these have 
ever been best interpreted by each other. It is a 
miscellany made up of sixty-six tracts, written by 
about forty different authors, the latest of whom is 
divided from the earliest by about two thousand 
years. The Bible as a title is not as many suppose, 
derived from biblos, nor does it signify the Booh by 
way of eminence; but it directly comes from biblia, 
a Greek term first applied by Christians in the fifth century to 
the various writings which ^ompose the Old and New Testament 
canons. This name first occurs on the pages of Chrysostom, who 
in one homily says: “ Provide yourselves with Biblia, the medi¬ 
cine of the soul; but if you desire no other at least procure the 
new , the Epistles, the Acts and the Gospels.” 

The first Bible, indeed the very first book—printed at Mentz 
was in Latin, between the years 1450 and 1455. An Italian 
Bible was printed in 1471; a German, in 1466; a Dutch r in 1477; 
a Valencian, in 1478; a Bohemian, in 1475; and a French, in 
1477. Tyndale's New Testament in English was not circulated 
until 1526; and the first English version of the whole Bible by 
Myles Coverdale is dated 1435. The English Bible which is in 
common use, generally called King James* Bible, was translated 

347 










348 


FACTS ABOUT THE BIBLE. 


more than two and a half centuries ago, and has ever since 
held its place as a model of excellence. 

The following tribute to the English Bible is perhaps the 
most beautiful that ever was penned: 

“ Who will say that the uncommon beauty and marvelous 
English of the Protestant Bible is not one of the strongholds of 
Christianity in this country? It lives on the ear like music 
that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church-bells, which 
the convert hardly knows how he can forego. Its intrinsic beauty 
pleads availingly with the man of letters and the scholar. Its 
felicities often seem to be almost things rather than mere words. 
It is a part of the national mind, and the anchor of national 
seriousness; nay, it is worshiped with a positive idolatry. The 
memory of the dead passes into it, the potent traditions of child¬ 
hood are stereotyped in its phrases. The power of all the griefs 
and trials of a man is hidden beneath its words. It is the repre¬ 
sentative of his best moments, and all that there has been about 
him of soft, and gentle, and pure, and penitent, and good, 
speaks to him forever out of his English Bible. It is his sacred 
thing, which doubt has never dimmed and controversy has never 
soiled. It has been to him all along as the silent—but, oh, how 
intelligible !—voice of his guardian-angel, and in the length and 
breadth of the land there is not a Protestant with one spark of 
religiousness about him whose spiritual biography is not in his 
Saxon Bible.” 

FACTS ABOUT THE BIBLE. 

The Bible contains 3,586,489 letters, 773,692 words, 31,173 
verses, 1,189 chapters, and 6 books. The word AND occurs 
46,277 times. The word LORD occurs 1,855 times. The word 
REVEREND occurs but once, which is in the 9th verse of th< 
111th Psalm. 

The middle verse is the 8th verse of the 118th Psalm. The 
21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all the letters of 
the alphabet except the letter J. The finest chapter to read is 
the 26th chapter of the Acts of the Apostles. The 19th chap- 


w ------ 

Comparative Diagram Showing The 

ACTUAL AND RELATIVE NUMBERS OF MANKIND 

CLASSIFIED according to their religion. 



m ___ d 






FOREIGN MISSIONS. 


349 


ter of 2d Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are alike. The 
longest verse is the 9th verse of the 8th chapter of Esther. The 
shortest verse is the 35th verse of the 11th chapter of St. John. 
The 8th, 15th, 21st and 31st verses of the 107th Psalm are 
alike. Each verse of the 136th Psalm ends alike. There are 
no words or names of more than six syllables. 

FOREIGN MISSIONS. 

Do you say you do not believe in foreign missions? Then 
there are certain things which you cannot believe: you cannot 
believe that God so loved the world that He sent His Son to save 
it; or that it is His wish that none should perish, but that all 
should come to repentance. You deny God’s universal love. 
You cannot believe that the gospel is the power of God unto 
salvation to every one that believeth. You deny its efficiency. 
You cannot believe that He was the son of God, or has any claim 
to your obedience, who said “Go ye into all the world and preach 
the gospel to every creature.” You deny His authority. For 
it is clear as noonday that if you believe these things, then you 
must believe in foreign missions. 

Unless you find in the gospel something which makes it 
worthy of being preached to all men, you have not found in it 
that which makes it of any worth to you; yoii have missed its 
meaning; you do not know its power. The root of unbelief in 
foreign missions is want of faith in the gospel. The following 
figures give the actual and relative numbers of mankind classi¬ 
fied according to their religion: 

Protestants, 116 millions; Greek church, 84 millions; 
Roman Catholics, 190 millions; Jews, 8 millions; Mohammedans, 
170 millions; Heathen, 856 millions. 

Of the Mohammedans, 80 millions are women confined in 
Moslem harems. Of the heathen, 300 millions are Buddhist 
women with no hope of immortality, unless in some future trans¬ 
migration they may be born as men. Two hundred and fifty 
millions of women depend for the gospel upon the women of the 
Protestant churches of America. Nine-tenths of the contribu- 


350 


FOREIGN MISSION'S. 


tions to the foreign missions are given by one-tenth of the 
church membership, while only one-half of the membership 
give anything. The average amount per member is fifty cents 
per annum—only the seventh part of a cent per day for the con¬ 
version of a thousand millions of heathen! An average of five 
cents a week from every member of the Protestant churches of 
the United States would bring into the treasury during a single 
year $16,500,000. Ninety-eight per cent of the churches* con¬ 
tributions for religious purposes is spent at home, while only 
two per cent is applied to the foreign mission field. There are 
75,000 ministers in the United States, or one to every 600 per¬ 
sons, while only one is allotted to half a million in heathen lands. 
There are 1,500 counties in China without a single missionary. 

The whole world is now open for the reception of the gospel. 
The Bible is printed in 250 languages and dialects; there are 
150,000,000 copies in circulation. Twenty-five Woman's Boards 
in England and America are actively engaged in foreign mission¬ 
ary work. The Young Men's Christian Associations are now 
formally inaugurating Foreign Missionary Branches. The num¬ 
ber of missionary societies is ten fold what it was eighty years 
ago; the number of converts is nearly fifty fold. Wonderful 
revivals, with pentecostal power, are frequent in heathen lands. 
The increase in membership in heathen lands is thirty times 
greater than at home in proportion to the number of ministers 
employed, although the tests of discipleship are of the most try¬ 
ing nature. But above all other encouragements are the pre¬ 
cious promises of God: “Ye that are the Lord's remembrancers 
keep not silence and give him no rest till he establish and till he 
make Jerusalem a praise in the earth.”—Isa. 62: 6 and 7. The 
great desire should be to awaken the people of God to the unpar¬ 
alleled opportunities of our own age, and the need of a move¬ 
ment more deep and wide, more earnest and self-denying, more 
bold and aggressive, than anything that has yet been attempted, 
to reach the neglected at home and evangelize the mighty gen¬ 
erations abroad—the one thousand million souls who are dying 
in Christless despair at the rate of 100,000 a day. 




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EDIBLE EIKDS’ NESTS. 





























































CHAPTER XXX. 


MISCELLANY. 

BIRDS* NESTS AS FOOD. 

ONG ago, in the records of natural history lore, it 
was known that the Chinese made a soup of certain 
birds* nests imported by them from the Eastern 
Archipelago. About 1817 Sir Everard Home sug¬ 
gested that the nutrient properties of the nests were 
due to some secretion or material derived from the 
stomach of the birds. The edible nests are made 
by species of swifts, and the special form which fur¬ 
nishes the well-known product is the Collocalia 
nidifica of naturalists. Here, however, as in so 
many other cases, we find that these curious nests do 
not stand alone in the zoological domain. Darwin, 
amassing, as was his wont, every fact of natural history, tells 
us that the nest is formed largely by the saliva or mouth- 
secretion of the bird. It is known that a North American 
swift uses its saliva in nest manufacture. It fixes and binds 
the sticks of which the nest is built with the secretion in 
question. In Darwin’s view and in that of other authorities, 
the edible birds* nests were merely the work of a species, 
which, at the nest-building season, developed a special power of 
utilizing the saliva as a kind of plastic material. Opposed to 
these opinions we find views which maintain that the nests of 
the Eastern Archipelago are really formed of Algce , or lower 
plants. The birds are believed to take these plants from the 
walls of the caves in which they dwell during the time of nest 
building. The plant-matter forms the basis in this view of 

351 













352 


SOME FACTS ABOUT CHICAGO. 


things, and the saliva constitutes the connecting medium where¬ 
by the solid parts are bound together to form the nest. Mr. 
Layard tells us, indeed, that the nests vary in structure, accord¬ 
ing to the period or season at which they are constructed. 
Those built early in the nest-building time consist almost entirely 
of animal secretion. Later on the birds appear to use extraneous 
matters, and employ foreign materials in the construction of 
their homes. 

SOME FACTS ABOUT CHICAGO. 

Chicago is distinguished for her grain market. There are 
in this city huge structures 150 feet high, towering above sur¬ 
rounding objects like feudal castles above the hovels of yeomen. 
Railroad trains run in and out of these Goliaths, and big steam¬ 
ers shelter their black hulks within the shadows while their 
holds are being filled with the golden grain. No other city in 
the world has so many elevators, no other such storage capacity; 
no other handles such vast quantities of cereals. In these 
structures may be housed more than 26,000,000 bushels of 
grain, equal to a solid column 100 feet square and 3,200 feet 
high, or to the average wheat crop of any one of the great wheat¬ 
growing states, California alone excepted. From out of the 
fertile West might come an impossible freight train composed of 
42,000 box cars all laden with wheat, and, with their locomotives 
reaching more than half way from Chicago to Omaha, and these 
mighty receptacles could swallow up all the grain, and still cry 
for more. One elevator could alone contain almost the entire 
wheat crop of the state of New Jersey, or of all New England, 
with that of little Delaware thrown in for good measure. Two- 
sevenths of all the wheat and one-half of all the flour exported 
from the United States in 1884 were shipped from Chicago. 
Naturally enough, the grain quotations made in Chicago are 
virtually the quotations for the world. Two hundred thousand 
cars of grain arrived in Chicago last year—equal, with their 
engines, to a solid train 1,325 miles long. Next to her grain 
business, Chicago is famous for her slaughter houses. As a " 


FATE OF THE APOSTLES. 


353 


sticker of pigs and killer of beeves she leads the world. In this 
kind of bloodshed she has no rival. More than 4,000,000 hogs 
and 1,000,000 beeves meet their fate here every year. Annually 
Chicago ships to the hungry of this country and the Old World 
something like 125,000,000 pounds of fresh beef, 40,000,000 of 
salt beef, 50,000,000 of pork, 360,000,000 of bacon and hams, 
and 250,000,000 of lard. What would the world's hungry do 
without Chicago? 

Thirt/years ago the daily receipts of strawberries in the city 
—now the second greatest fruit market in the world—could all 
have been carried in on one wagon at one load, and it would not 
have been a large load either. Now whole railway trains are 
engaged to carry the daily supply of that market, which often 
amounts to 300 tons, and sometimes twice that quantity. 

FATE OF THE APOSTLES. 

The following brief history of the fate of the Apostles may be 
new to those whose reading has not been evangelical: 

St. Matthew is supposed to have suffered martyrdom or was 
slain with a sword at the city of Ethiopia. 

St. Mark was dragged through the streets of Alexandria in 
Egypt, till he expired. 

St. Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in Greece. 

St. John was put into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, and 
escaped death. He afterwards died a natural death at Ephesus 
in Asia. 

St. James the Great was beheaded at Jerusalem. 

St. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle or wing of 
the temple, and then beaten to death with a fuller's club. 

• St. Philip was hanged up against a pillar at Hierapolis, a city 
of Phrygia. 

St. Bartholomew was flayed alive by the command of a bar¬ 
barous king. 

St. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached unto 
the people till he expired. 

23 



354 


LARGE SALARIES. 


St. Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Coro¬ 
mandel in the East Indies. 

St. Jude was shot to death with arrows. 

St. Simon Zealot was crucified in Persia. 

St. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. 

St. Barnabas was stoned to death by the Jews at Salania. 

St. Paul was beheaded at Rome by the tyrant Nero. 

LARGE SALARIES. 

There are a score of men in New York who are paid as much 
for their services each year as the President of the United 
States. Forty thousand dollars a year is a very tidy salary. 
There are hundreds of men who get $25,000 a year salary, and 
the number who get from $10,000 to $20,000 are legion. 
Very ordinary men get from $5,000 to $8,000 a year, or as much 
as a cabinet officer. Dr. Norvin Green, president of the Western 
Union Telegraph Company, is paid $50,000. So is Chauncey 
M. Depew, president of the New York Central Railroad. Richard 
M. McCurdy, president of the Mutual Life Insurance Company, 
gets a like amount. John Hoey, president of Adams Express 
Company, fares equally as well. President Henry B. Hyde, of 
the Equitable Life Insurance Company, is also on the list. 
George G. Williams, president of the Chemical National bank, 
the richest banking institution in America, with nearly $5,000,- 
000 of surplus, $20,000,000 average deposits, is paid a salary of 
$25,000 yearly. President Potts, of the Park bank, and Presi¬ 
dent Tappan, of the Gallatin National bank, receive a like sum 
each twelve months. The best paid minister in New York is 
Dr. John Hall, a brainy man from the north of Ireland, who 
preaches to $200,000,000 every Sunday. His is the smallest 
church in town. He owes his rise in life to Robert Bonner, of 
the Ledger, who found him preaching to a small congregation 
in Dublin, and induced him to come to America. He gets a 
salary of $20,000 a year, and makes $5,000 by his newspaper 
and magazine articles. He is given a luxuriously furnished 


GREAT MINDS. 


355 


house as well. Dr. Morgan Dix, the chief pastor of Trinity 
church corporation, the wealthiest in America, receives $15,000 
yearly. Dr. William L. Taylor, of the Broadway tabernacle, 
gets the same amount. He does literary work and lecturing 
that brings his income up to $20,000. Dr. Charles Hall, of the 
Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church, is paid $15,000. He is very 
eloquent and his church is crowded at all services. Dr. Park- 
hurst, of Madison Square church, gets $12,000. He has a large 
and distinguished congregation. Cyrus W. Field is one of the 
pillars of the church. Dr. Paxton, who preaches to Jay Gould 
and others less wealthy, is paid $15,000. The Rev. Robert 
Collyer, the blacksmith preacher, is paid $10,000. 

GREAT MINDS. 

*' Great genius is to madness near allied, 

And thin partitions do their bounds divide.” 

Csesar and Peter the Great had falling sickness. Napoleon 
was subject to long fits of fainting that resembled catalepsy. 
Newton had also a disordered nervous system. Byron’s mother 
was a raging, irresponsible termagant, and father no better. 
Isabella the Catholic, who was certainly a woman of genius, had 
a mad uncle, a mad brother, and mad daughter, the ancestor of 
all the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. Her (Isabella’s) grand¬ 
son, Charles V., also a man of prodigious political genius, was 
epileptic and the progenitor of a line which ended in idiocy. 
Pascal had fits and hallucinations. Luther also had the latter 
and thought he saw the Devil in person coming to tempt him. 
William the Conqueror was the son of Robert the Devil, who 
must have had, to judge from the legend which has been handed 
down, a nervous system that ran riot. According to the new 
theory, genius, like the orchard pear or apple tree, or the double 
rose, or dahlia, is abnormal, and except in an intellectual sense, 
sterile. Thus Dante (a hypochondriac), Michael Angelo, 
Raphael, Shakespeare, Cowper, Wordsworth, Byron, Scott and 
De Quincey either left no posterity or families that soon died 
out. Victor Hugo had, on the maternal side, a mad uncle and 


356 


PRECOCIOUS AUTHORSc 


mad cousins. His brother Eugene died in a mad-house, and his 
only surviving daughter, Adele, has been for years in confine¬ 
ment. 

PRECOCIOUS AUTHORS. 

Mozart was exhibited as a pianist before he was five, and 
Mendelssohn's first cantata was written at eleven; while Bee¬ 
thoven at nine had outgrown his father's musical teaching; 
Raphael was a scholar in the studio at twelve ; Titian painted a 
Madonna at the same age; Morland was an accepted portrait 
painter, highly paid by his customers at ten ; Landseer exhibited 
his pictures at thirteen; and Flaxman carved busts at fifteen. 
Goldoni at eight sketched out a comedy ; Calderon wrote a play 
at fourteen ; Goethe was a poet at fifteen ; Beaumont composed 
tragedies at twelve ; and Cowley's epic, written at ten, is said to 
be “an astonishing feat of imaginative precocity." Scott in¬ 
vented stories at twelve ; Dickens was a charming raconteur, the 
delight of his companions, at nine ; and Charlotte Bronte wrote 
stories, as well as poems and plays, at fourteen. Grotius was a 
scholar at twelve ; Porson could repeat the whole of Horace and 
Virgil before he was fifteen; and Macaulay at eight put together 
a compendium of universal history. Newton was a mechanician 
at school; Laplace, while a mere lad, was a mathematical 
teacher; Pascal at eighteen invented a calculating machine; 
and Leibnitz thought out difficult philosophic problems before 
he was fifteen. 

Niagara's great force. 

The average flow of the Niagara River is 275,000 cubic feet 
per second, and its total calculated force equal to seven millions 
horse-power. According to the last United States census, the 
whole amount of power employed in manufacturing throughout 
the Union is about three millions and a-half horse-power, of 
which, roughly speaking, one-third is supplied by water and the 
remaining two-thirds by steam. It appears, therefore, that the 
water-power of the Niagara is enough to drive all the machinery 
in the United States twice told. 


THE AMAZON" — COLORADO. 


357 


THE AMAZON". 

The Amazon and its tributaries drain nearly 2,500,000 square 
miles, or more than a third part of South America, including 
about one-fourth of the area of Brazil, and has a course through 
the empire of nearly 2,300 miles. It is one of the wonderful 
rivers of the globe. It empties itself into the ocean with such 
velocity that navigators, after losing sight of the land, may yet 
drink its waters, its volume overlying—so it is said—the surface 
of the ocean for fifty leagues from shore. Beyond the frontier 
of Brazil the Amazon continues to be navigable by steamers for 
upwards of 1,188 miles, in the territory of Peru. The river and 
its tributaries are navigable, by steamers, through an aggregate 
length of more than 25,000 miles, and by smaller craft for double 
that distance. The river is altogether about 4,000 miles in 
length, is more than 150 miles at its mouths, and far into the 
interior is so broad that its navigation is often dangerous on 
account of the tempests which overtake vessels before they can 
reach the shore. 

COLORADO. 

Colorado has 800 miles of first-class irrigating canals, 3,500 
miles of secondary canals and 40,000 miles of smaller ditches, 
which have cost in the aggregate about $11,000,000, and will 
irrigate 2,200,000 acres. The largest canal is taken from the 
Rio del Norte. It is 98 feet wide at the top and 65 feet at the 
bottom, with a carrying capacity of 207,000,000 cubic feet per 
diem. The main line is fifty miles long and it is designed to 
irrigate 200,000 acres. It was constructed in four months by 
5,000 men and 1,200 teams. 

A GREAT MOUNTAIN". 

The great African Equatorial mountain, within 180 miles of 
the coast, opposite Zanzibar, collectively called Kilimanjaro, 
consists of two grand peaks—the one, called Kibo, rising to an 
elevation of 18,800 feet; the other Kimawenzi, rising to 16,250 
feet. Both peaks have their summits above the region of eter¬ 
nal snow, and both are the craters of extinct volcanoes. 


358 


COAL LN THE UNITED STATES. 


This country has an area of between 300,000 and 400,000 
square miles of known coal fields, from which 100,000 tons is 
mined yearly—enough to belt the earth at the equator with a 
ring five and a half feet thick by five and a half wide. The 
quantity “ in sight ” is estimated to he sufficient to supply the 
whole world for a period of fifteen hundred to two thousand 
years. 

ABOUT WIND AND WEATHEB. 

Seamen find it convenient to express many important facts in 
rhymes, and a few of the more prominent are here given. 

The evening grey and the morning red, 

Put on your hat or you’ll wet your head. 

When the wind shifts against the sun. 

Trust it not, for it will run. 

When the sun sets in the clear 
An easterly wind you need not fear. 

The evening red and morning grey 
Are sure signs of a fine day ; 

But the evening grey and morning red 
Make the sailor shake his head. 

Adverting to the barometer :— 

First rise, after low, 

Indicates a stronger blow. 

Also 

Long foretold, long last: 

Short notice, soon past. 

To which may be added— 

In squalls, 

When the rain’s before the wind. 

Halyards, sheets, and braces mind. 

And 

When the wind’s before the rain. 

Soon you may make sail again. 

Also, speaking generally— 


EXTREMES OF WEATHER IN THE PAST. 359 

When the glass falls low 
Prepare for a blow. 

When it rises high 
Let all your kites fly. 

“ A rainbow in the morning, 

Sailors take warning; 

A rainbow at night 
Is the sailor’s delight. ” 

EXTREMES OF WEATHER IN THE PAST. 

Captain W. H. Gardner has examined, for the Alabama 
Weather Service, the records of the weather— such as exist— 
from 1701 to 1885, and concludes from them that spells of severe 
weather of all kinds—extreme heat and cold, violent storms, hur¬ 
ricanes and tornadoes, disastrous floods, and parching droughts 
—were no more rare in the last century and the earlier part of 
the present century than now. In 1701 there were recorded at 
Biloxi, Mississippi, a winter cold that instantly froze water 
poured into a tumbler, and August heat that made labor impos¬ 
sible except for two hours in the morning and two in the even¬ 
ing. In the winter of 1746 water was frozen solid in the houses 
at Charleston, South Carolina. In 1748 and 1768 the Missis¬ 
sippi river at New Orleans was frozen from thirty to forty feet 
from the shores. In 1823 skating was possible on all the stand¬ 
ing water in and around Mobile. In 1827-28 the ground at Ala¬ 
bama, Georgia and South Carolina, was frozen hard from Decem¬ 
ber till March. A flood in the lower Mississippi, and a “fearful 
hurricane 99 on the Gulf coast were recorded in 1723; another 
destructive hurricane in 1732; and overflows of the lower Missis- 
sippifrom January till June,1735; after which came a long drouth, 
and a lower river than had ever been known. In a hurricane at 
Dauphin Island, in September, 1740, a four-pound cannon was 
moved by the wind to eighteen feet from where it had been lying. 
Other hurricanes of extreme fury were recorded in October, 1788; 
August, 1779; August, 1780; and August, 1781. In the last year 
the Mississippi at New Orleans, the Attakapas, and the Opelousas, 
were higher than ever before known. The Mississippi at St. 


360 


KNOWLEDGE AND IGNORANCE. 


Louis was equally high in the flood of 1785, and in July, 1884, 
and it reached its highest recorded flood in 1844. The flood of 
the Ohio river in 1832 was not exceeded till 1883. The year 
1840 was one of almost continual drouth in Alabama and Missis¬ 
sippi, and prayel-meetings were held in view of the apprehen¬ 
ded famine. These are only a few of the instances of remarka¬ 
ble phenomena, comparable to those that now attract attention, 
of which mention is made in Captain Gardner's record. 

KNOWLEDGE AND IGNORANCE. 

There are two sorts of ignorance. We philosophize to escape 
ignorance, and the consummation of our philosophy is igno¬ 
rance. We start from the one, we repose in the other; they 
are the goals from which and to which we tend; and the pur¬ 
suit of knowledge is but a course between two ignorances, as 
human life is itself only a wayfaring from grave to grave. We 
never can emerge from ignorance. If, as living creatures— 
“ We are such stuff 

As dreams are made of, and our little life 
Is rounded with a sleep, ” 

so as cognizant intelligences our dream of knowledge is a little 
light rounded with a darkness. One mortal, one nation or gen¬ 
eration of mortals, may flare a flambeau, and another twinkle a 
taper; still the sphere of human enlightenment is at best a point, 
compared with the boundless universe of ijight surrounding it. 
Science is a drop; nescience is the ocean in which that drop is 
whelmed. 

our presidents' graves. 

The burial-places of our presidents are widely scattered. 
Washington lies at Mount Vernon; the two Adamses are buried 
under the old church at Quincy, Mass.; Jefferson rests at Mon- 
ticello; Madison's grave is at Montpelier, not far from Monti- 
cello; Monroe's remains lie in the Richmond cemetery; Jackson's 
grave is in front of his old residence, “The Hermitage;" Van 
Buren was buried at Kinderhook; Harrison at North Bend, near 
Cincinnati; Polk at Nashville; Taylor's remains are near Louis- 


FACTS ABOUT THE UNITED STATES. 361 

ville; Fillmore lies in Forest Lawn cemetery, Buffalo; Pierce was 
buried in Concord, and Buchanan at Lancaster; Lincoln's grave 
is near Springfield; Johnson's at Greenville; Garfield's at Cleve¬ 
land; Grant's at Riverside, and Arthur's at Albany. 

IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT THE UNITED STATES. 

The United States contains more English-speaking people 
than all the rest of the world; the wealth of the republic exceeds 
that of Great Britain; it also surpasses the mother country not 
only in agriculture but in manufactures, and for every pauper 
in the United States there are twenty-one in Holland and Belgium, 
and six in Great Britaimand Ireland; seven-eighths of our peo¬ 
ple are native born; twenty-two per cent of them now live in 
towns of 8,000 or more inhabitants; if the live stock in our 
country were marshaled in procession five abreast, in close 
order, the line would reach round the world and overlap; Chi¬ 
cago alone makes half as many steel rails in a year as Great 
Britain, and Minneapolis turns out so much flour that the bar¬ 
rels would form a bridge from New York to Ireland; we produce 
sixteen pounds of butter annually for every man, woman and 
child in the country, and if our crop of cereals were loaded in 
carts, it would require all the horses in Europe, and a million 
more, to move it; more yards of carpeting are manufactured in 
Philadelphia than in all Great Britain; a single factory in Mas¬ 
sachusetts turns out* as many pairs of boots as 35,000 boot¬ 
makers in Paris; our Government has given us more land for 
the support of schools and colleges than the entire area of Eng¬ 
land, Scotland and Ireland. 

THE WORLD'S ANNUAL INCREASE IN WEALTH. 

The annual increase in the production of wealth is as follows: 

United States.$825,000,000 

France. .375,000,000 

Great Britain.325,000,000 

Germany.200,000,000 

Other countries.725,000,000 


The world, 


$2,450,000,000 










362 


FAMOUS PICTURED ROCKS, 


The average for America is $15 a head; for the rest of man¬ 
kind $1.42 only. The entire wealth of the United States is esti¬ 
mated at $43,642,000,000. In 1860, omitting slaves, it was $16,- 
157,000,000. 

FAMOUS PICTURED ROCKS. 

The famous Pictured Rocks on the Evansville pike about 
four miles from Morgantown, W, Va., have been a source of 
wonder and speculation for more than a entury, and have 
attracted much attention among the learned men of this coun¬ 
try and Europe. The cliff upon which these drawings exist is 
of considerable size, and within a short distance of the highway 
above mentioned. The rock is a white sandstone, which wears 
little from exposure to the weather, and upon its smooth surface 
are delineated the outlines of at least fifty species of animals, 
birds, reptiles and fish, embracing in the number panthers, deer, 
buffalo, otters, heavers, wild-cats, foxes, wolves, raccoons, opos¬ 
sums, bears, elk, crows, eagles, turkeys, Cels, various sorts of 
fish, large and small snakes, etc. In the midst of this silent 
menagerie of specimens of the animal kingdom is the full-length 
outline of a female form, beautiful and perfect in every respect. 
Interspersed among the drawings of animals, etc., are imitations 
of the foot-prints of each sort, the whole space occupied being 
150 feet long by 50 wide. To what race the artist belonged, or 
what his purpose was in making these rude portraits, must ever 
remain a mystery, but the work was evidently done years ago. 

FALLACIES IN REGARD TO DIET. 

First. That there is any nutriment in beef-tea made from 
extracts: there is none whatever. Second. That gelatine is 
nutritious: it will not keep a cat alive. Beef-tea and gelatine, 
however, possess a certain reparative power, we know not what. 
Third. That an egg is equal to a pound of meat, and that every 
sick person can eat them: many, especially those of nervous or 
bilious temperament, cannot eat them, and to such eggs are in¬ 
jurious. Fourth. That because milk is an important article of 


ORIGIN OF PAPER MONEY. 


363 


food it must be forced upon a patient, food that a person can¬ 
not endure will not cure. Fifth. That arrow-root is nutritious: 
it is simply starch and water, useful as a restorative and quickly 
prepared. Sixth. That cheese is injurious in all cases: it is, as 
a rule, contra-indicated, being usually indigestible; but it is con¬ 
centrated nutriment, a waste-repairer, and often craved. Seventh. 
That the cravings of a patient are whims, and should be denied: 
the stomach often needs, craves for and digests articles not laid 
down in any dietary. Such are, for example, fruit, pickles, 
jams, cake, ham or bacon with fat, cheese, butter and milk. 
Eighth. That an inflexible diet may be marked out which shall 
apply to every case: choice of a given list of articles allowable 
in a given case must be decided by the opinion of the stomach. 
The stomach is right and theory wrong, and the judgment 
admits no appeal. A diet which would keep a healthy man 
healthy might kill a sick man; and a diet sufficient to sustain a 
sick man would not keep a well man alive. Increased quantity 
of food, especially of liquids, does not mean increased nutriment; 
rather decrease, since the digestion is overtaxed and weakened. 
Strive to give the food in as concentrated a form as possible. 

ORIGIN OF PAPER MONEY. 

All the way from China, and from a period dating more than 
a hundred years before the time of Christ, there comes to us a 
story in which some writers appear to see the origin of bank¬ 
notes. Among the Celestials it was customary and necessary, so 
the story goes, for courtiers and princes, whenever they came 
into the royal presence, to veil their faces with a piece of skin. 
Now it so happened that at one time the imperial purse was far 
from full, and it fell to the lot of the Prime Minister to discover 
some expedient for removing this source of inconvenience. He 
accordingly spent many tedious hours, and pondered over many 
schemes, before he could exclaim, like Archimedes, “Eureka!” 
(“I have found it!”) The result of his profound meditations 
was a decree to the effect that for veiling the face in the presence 
of royalty only the skins of certain white deer belonging to the 


364 


FRENCH ARTISTS. 


sovereign should be allowed. Of course his Majesty, possessing 
a monopoly of these deer, could sell pieces of their skin at what- * 
ever price he liked. This made them very valuable; they con¬ 
sequently circulated amongst the upper classes of Chinese society 
as a convenient form of money, and thus we read, “Bank¬ 
notes were invented in China. ” 

FRENCH ARTISTS. 

The modern French painters seek absolute and textual truth; 
their aim is to give us by their pictures exactly the sensations 
of a real vision of human nature or of that more myster¬ 
ious nature which is not human. In modern French 
fiction, as in modern French painting, the process is obser¬ 
vation of nature, selection and composition. The artist starts 
from the sensation and not from the idea, and whether he be 
a writer, a painter, or a sculptor, what he seeks above everything 
is the vivid pictorial impression, the presentation of the facts or 
the events which contain their own morality. In life and in 
nature there is no morality, no conclusion, no rounded story. 
C’est comme ca et voila tout. 

Many French artists have'risen from the poorer classes. 
Carblu Duran went through a good deal of trouble, and ate pretty 
freely of the vache enragee; but that, and everything else, 
pales before the achievements in misery of M. Paul Baudry. 
He was sent to Paris by the town of Bourbon (Vendee), with 
four hundred francs a year, out of which had to come twenty- 
five francs a month for studio expenses. Sometimes he would 
save his twenty-five francs, and work at home in his garret; but 
even thus, one fails to see how he ever contrived to keep body 
and soul together until the happy moment he took a prize, and 
his allowance was raised to twelve hundred francs a year. Cour¬ 
age, force, and devotion to art have never deserted Baudry, and 
they stood him in good stead during the two or three years he 
spent on the gigantic task of decorating the Opera. 

SUNFLOWERS AS FUEL — A PECULIAR WOOD. 

Sunflowers are used in Wyoming territory for fuel. The 


LARGE DIAMONDS. 


365 


stalks, when dry, are as hard as maplewood, and make a hot fire, 
and the seed-heads, with the seeds in, are said to burn better 
than the best hard coal. An acre of sunflowers will furnish fuel 
for one stove a year. In Nevada there is a peculiar wood known 
as “ mountain mahogany.” A tree with a trunk a foot in 
diameter is much above the average. When dry the wood is 
about as hard as boxwood, and being of a very fine grain, might 
no doubt be used for the same purpose. It is of rich, red color, 
very heavy, and would be a fine material for the wood carver. 
Used as a fuel it creates intense heat. It burns with a blaze as 
long as ordinary wood would last, and then is found (almost 
unchanged in form) converted to a charcoal that lasts about 
twice as long as ordinary wood. For fuel it stands much higher 
than any other kind of wood ; indeed, a cord of it always brings 
the same price as a ton of coal. The only objection to it as a 
fuel is that it creates such an intense heat as to burn out stoves 
more rapidly than coal. 

LARGE DIAMONDS. 

The large diamond of 457 carats, found in South Africa in 
1884, has now been cut, and weighs about 200 carats. The 
Kohinoor weighs only 106 carats, the Regent of France 136f 
carats, and the Great Mogul 279 carats, but it is a lumpy stone, 
and not cut in proper brilliant form, like the Cape stone. There 
is also a Portuguese stone, the Braganza diamond, but it is 
doubtful if it is a diamond at all, and not merely a fine topaz. 
If it is a diamond, it is by far the largest known. There are 
other diamonds of great value ; but the new stone is expected to 
go far to eclipse them. It is the property of a syndicate at 
present. 

THE HOLY ALLIANCE. 

The Holy Alliance was an international treaty, formed di¬ 
rectly and personally between the Sovereigns of Russia, Austria 
and Prussia, whom all the European Powers joined, excepting 
only Great Britain, the Pope and Turkey, to whom the treaty 


366 


ANCIENT AND MODERN BRIDGES. 


was naturally not offered for signature. Its object was to bind 
the subscribing Powers together in brotherly love and charity as 
one Christian family, to regulate the government of the three 
great states representing Christianity and the Greek and Roman 
churches by the spirit and genius of Christendom, and to unite 
them in a common union overstepping the differences of their 
religions, and recognizing their fundamental mainspring. 

A REMARKABLE HANGING BRIDGE. 

At Carrick-a-Rede, on the coast of Antrim, in Ireland, there 
is a remarkable hanging bridge. A high rock of basalt stands 
in the sea, entirely separate from the mainland, from which it 
has been torn, so to speak, by some great natural convulsion. 
This basaltic rock is connected with the mainland by means of a 
bridge of ropes, along which wooden planks have been laid down 
to give more secure foothold, and there is also a rope handrail. 
The natives, even under heavy burdens, cross this bridge with 
ease; but it is rather hazardous for strangers to attempt the 
passage. The sea roars ninety feet below in a sheer descent. 

ANCIENT AND MODERN BRIDGES. 

The first bridges ever constructed were of wood, and the 
earliest of which we have any account were built in Rome about 
500 B.c. The bridge of Xerxes, built of boats, across the Helles¬ 
pont, was a very ancient piece of civil engineering. The next 
in Roman history was erected by Julius Caesar for the passage of 
his army across the Rhine. Trajan's great bridge across the 
Danube, 4,700 feet long, was made of timber, with stone piers. 
The Romans also built the first stone bridge which crossed the 
Tiber. Suspension bridges are of remote origin. A Chinese 
bridge of this nature, mentioned in ancient chronicles, was 
made of chains, supporting a roadway 830 feet in length. It 
was built A. d. 65, and is still to be seen. China has the longest 
stone bridges in the world, but India the longest wooden one — 
over five miles. The first large iron bridge was erected over the 
Severn in 1777. There is a trestle bridge over Lake Potichar- 


HIGH BRIDGE 



































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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A CAUSE OF HILARITY. 


367 


train, in Louisiana, which is by far the longest in the world. 
The Suspenson bridge at Niagara Falls has a span of 800 feet, 
and the great New York and Brooklyn bridge is over 1,500 feet 
long. The age of railways has brought a remarkable develop¬ 
ment in this line, especially in the construction of bridges of 
iron and steel, the most important being the Forth cantilever 
bridge and the bridge on thg same principle over the Indus at 
Sukkur. 

A CAUSE OF HILARITY. 

At one time, in the kingdom of Spain, it is said that if a man 
were seen laughing heartily over a book, that book was sure to 
be the story of the adventures of Don Quixote. Nowadays, and 
in England, if any one is seen under similar conditions of hilarity, 
it may be asserted with almost equal assurance, that the cause of 
mirth is of transatlantic origin. The English are not a nation 
of jokers, but it is an accepted idea that the Americans are. 
Accordingly, if laughter would hold both his sides, it is to 
American sources that he turns for the occasion of his excite¬ 
ment. Books of American wit and humor crowd their book¬ 
stalls. Would any man be merry ? Straightway, be buys a 
volume of Mark Twain, Uncle Kemus, or one of the “ Fonetik 
Publikashuns 99 of the late Josh Billings, and laughs away 
accordingly. 

MARY STEWART 

Mary Stewart was one of the book lovers whose taste was 
more than a mere following of the fashion Some of her books, 
like one of Marie Antoinette's, were the companions of her 
activity, and still bear the sad complaints which she intrusted to 
these last friends of fallen royalty. Her note book, in which 
she wrote her Latin prose exercises when a girl, yet survives, 
bound in red morocco, with the arms of France. In a Book of 
Hours, now the property of the Czar, may be partly deciphered 
the quatrains which she composed in her sorrowful times. 

THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

It may be of interest to see what armies are maintained and 


368 


THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 


at what cost by the leading countries of Europe as in comparison 
with our own. The following table gives the number of soldiers 
actually in service and the number that can he called out in 
time of war. A comparison of the soldiers with the population 
would show that in the event of war almost every man in the 
country can be called into service : 


Regular War Annual 

Countries. army. footing. cost. 

Austria-Hungary. 284,071 1,078,904 $ 49,116,248 

France. 529,269 3,754,164 121 061,600 

Germany. 445,402 1,492,104 84,968,140 

Great Britain. 181,971 641,753 90,901,430 

British India. 190,476 380,000 87,201,270 

Italy. 750,765 1,985,619 41,098,611 

Russia. 780,081 2,300,000 125,508,474 

Spain. 152,895 400,000 24,524,415 

Turkey. 160,417 410,200 23,844,064 


The cost of supporting these huge standing armies looks 
frightfully large; but it may surprise many readers to be informed 
of the fact that by the end of this year the American pension 
list will call for ninety millions, or more money than Germany 
pays out for the maintenance of her standing army of half a 
million of men. 

Little Belgium, with a population of less than 6,000,000 peo¬ 
ple, maintains an army of 47,000 men; Norway and Sweden, 
with 6,300,000, keep 60,000 soldiers in the field, and Denmark, 
with 2,000,000 people, has 35,000. 

It is no wonder, with so many men withdrawn from among 
the producers and placed among the class that has to be main¬ 
tained by the labor of others, that those countries do not progress 
at all, are loaded down with debts, and the people in abject 
poverty. 

The immense navies maintained by most of these countries 
compare in size and costliness with their armies, rendering the 
burdens still greater. It is a certainty that the present over¬ 
grown armaments cannot be maintained, and that before many 
years there will have to be a general disarmament. 

It will be observed that the three central governments which 











THE WORLD’S KINGS — FASTING. 


369 


are in close alliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy— 
themselves maintain 1,480,000 soldiers, and in the event of war 
could speedily place 4,500,000 men in the field fully armed and 
equipped. 

THE FRENCH NAVY. 

The French navy at present consists of six ironclads of the 
first-rate, and seven of the second (in wood), four protected 
cruisers, with a speed of fourteen knots, and pas un croiseur 
rapide. In 1890 it will contain fourteen first-rates, four second- 
rates, four protected cruisers, and at least three swift cruisers. 
The German navy contains twelve ironclads, four cruisers, 
and eleven coastguard monitors. They are not in all respects 
equal to the best of the French, but they are much better than 
the second-rates, and are moreover as a rule swifter, and being 
built of iron, while so many of the French have wood frames, 
are less liable to suffer from shell fire, and more enduring. 

THE WORLD’S KINGS. 

In 1883 there were twenty-two kings, including emperors. 
The number who have ruled in various countries since the battle 
of Hastings, a.d. 1066, has been as follows: 


England. 

No. 

.35 

Average 

Reign, 

Years. 

23 

Spain. 

No. 

Average 

Reign, 

Years. 

26 

France. 

.34 

24 

Denmark. 

.39 

21 

Germany. 

... 39 

21 

Sweden. 

.53 

15 

Russia. 

.50 

16 

Turkey... 

.35 

17 


The Turkish dynasty dates only from 1299. The average 
reign of the above three hundred and seventeen monarch s was 
lust twenty years. 

FASTING. 

Voluntary fasting is not by any means a modern invention. 
In various countries and various ages it has been practiced by 
people anxious to acquire a special reputation for sanctity. The 
custom of sitting in Dharna, whereby the Brahmins used to 
coerce their enemies into submission, does not perhaps come 
24 











370 


COLLECTIONS OF STAMPS. 


under this heading; for the object of the sitter in Dharna was 
not to fast and live, but to fast and die, and thus to lay upon his 
adversary's head the sin of causing the death of a holy man. 
But in India and throughout the East a fast of several months 
is still an acceptable form of penance, and confers on a fakir 
or dervish who practices it almost as much fame as if he sus¬ 
pended himself by an iron hook, or crawled on his belly till he 
had lost the use of his limbs. In these cases, however, as in 
those of the fasting hermits of the Middle Ages, total abstinence 
is not rigorously insisted upon. The ascetics eat something, if 
it is only a few handfuls of parched peas or rice. Even St. 
Simeon Stylites, when he lay “pent in a roofless close of ragged 
stones," did not refuse “the spare chance gift of those" that 
came to touch the body of so holy a person. 

COLLECTIONS OF STAMPS. 

The French navy department in Paris has amassed not 
merely a huge album, but a gigantic library of stamps. It is 
the largest collection in the world. This, of course, is public 
property. The most valuable of all private collections belongs 
to the Duchesse de Galliera, of the same city. Up to the end of 
the year 1886, this family souvenir had cost $300,000, or a mill¬ 
ion and a half of francs. 

The Rothschilds, as a mainstay or safeguard of their fort¬ 
unes, have a collection of postage stamps valued at a quarter of 
a million francs. If these figures seem incredible, let it be 
remembered that every square inch of a postage stamp album 
costs money. And sometimes a five-dollar gold piece will not 
be enough to purchase some old stamp which, when new, was 
worth but a single cent or a single sou. Indeed, $5 would be 
“ dirt cheap ” for some special favorite and coveted stamp which 
is now hard to be got. There are, for instance, Brazilian 
stamps, now out of print, that would fetch from $5 to $10 apiece 
if offered for sale in Paris, Chicago or San Francisco. A cer¬ 
tain. English stamp, issued in 1840, bearing the letters V. K. 


MEDICAL WOMEN - IN AMERICA. 


an 

(Victoria Regina) is now so rare that it will bring in London, 
Quebec, Montreal or the United States as much as $40. What 
is known as the blue stamp of Naples, 1820, is now worth 
between $50 and $60. In order to make this price seem cheap 
and inviting to the general reader, we will add that there is a 
“lost pleaid,” so to speak, in the shape of a postage stamp issued 
by the government of British Guiana in 1856, which now com¬ 
mands, at public auction, about $250. 

MEDICAL WOMEN IN AMERICA. 

In America, we find that medical women are numbered not 
by tens but by hundreds, and that their practice, both among 
private patients and in hospitals, is of the most extensive kind. 
In 1881 no less than 470 were known to have taken medical 
degrees (exclusive of graduates of eclectic and homoeopathic 
schools), and, in reply to circulars of inquiry, rather more than 
300 full answers were received, and some information obtained 
about 130 more. “ Of these 430 women, 390 are found to be 
engaged in active practice, eleven have never practiced at all, 
while twenty-nine have practiced for a time and then retired. 
Of the latter, twelve have ceased practice on account of mar¬ 
riage, seven from ill-health, five have engaged in other work, 
while the remainder give no reasons. These women are scat¬ 
tered over twenty-six states of the'Union, New York, Pennsyl¬ 
vania and Massachusetts having the largest number. There are, 
so far as we know, no women physicians in the Southern states, 
with the exception of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia and 
Texas; also Done in Arkansas, Kentucky and Nevada. While 
Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Chicago have each quite a 
large number, many of the answers have come from small vil¬ 
lages and towns. Seventy-five per cent were single on beginning 
the study of medicine, nineteen per cent were married, and six 
per cent were widows. Their average age was twenty-seven 
yeai% and the average time of study before engaging in practice 
was four and a half years.” 


372 


LUXURIOUS BOOK BINDINGS. 


A YOUNG GORILLA. 

It is seldom that a young gorilla can be brought alive away 
from its native haunts. Some years ago, however, one had been 
safely conveyed to Liverpool. It was a great favorite, its pranks 
being most amusing. At one moment it romped about the 
sitting-room where it was confined; at another, it gravely looked 
out of the window. If a visitor came in, it bounded towards 
him on all-fours, playfully routed about his feet, pulled his 
beard, seized his arms, and examined his hat and umbrella. 
When over-excited by fun, a slight box on the ear made him 
calm for a few minutes. He could clap hands, point with his 
forefinger, and put out his tongue. Though he fed on a mixed 
diet, he liked roast meat better than boiled, and was very fond 
of strawberries. Moreover, he was exceedingly clean and well- 
behaved. 

LUXURIOUS BOOK BINDINGS. 

Among the most remarkable examples of luxurious binding, 
besides the peerless “ Bedford Missal,” belonging to the British 
nation, are the “ cloisonee” enamel cover of the Greek gospels 
in the library of Siena; an ivory cover of Byzantine school at 
Wurzburg in Bavaria; the remarkable early pieces in carved 
ivory at Berlin; the Codex Whittikind; the very early cover in 
the Hildesheim Treasury, “ open cut,” studded with crystals, 
gems and cameos; the most interesting ivory-carved cover of 
the Psalter of Charles the Bald, preserved in the Imperial 
Library of Paris; the beautiful cover in copper gilt and niello of 
the Sainte Chapelle New Testament at Paris. The great majority 
of the books in the British Museum are bound in half morocco, 
with cloth to match the leather. Historical works are in red, 
theological in blue, poetical in yellow, natural history in green. 
Besides this, each part or volume is stamped with a mark by 
which it can be distinguished as their property, and of different 
colors:—thus red indicates that a book was purchased, blue that 
it came by copyright, and yellow that it was presented 


INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT OCEAN STEAMERS. 373 

The average large Atlantic steamer is manned by about 150 
men distributed as follows: 32 deck hands under four officers 
and 9 petty officers; 32 firemen, coal heavers and machinists 
under 8 engineers; and 65 stewards. Captain Johnston obtained 
the thousand pounds prize for making the first steam voyage to 
India. The name of the vessel was the Enterprise, and it sailed 
from Falmouth, August 16, 1825. 

The average speed of an ocean steamer is 12 miles an hour; 
sailing vessel, 7 miles an hour. The yacht Melbourne in 1876, 
between the Cape and Australia, averaged 15.6 knots for twenty- 
four hours. For seventeen consecutive days she averaged 300 
knots. Her three largest runs were 374, 365, and 352 knots per 
twenty-four hours. An American ship, the Sovereign of the Seas, 
did 352 knots in twenty-four hours in 1852; that was an average of 
over 15 knots per hour. The first steamer crossed the Atlantic 
in 1819. The first Atlantic cable was operated in 1858. 

The Pacific Ocean covers an area of 71 million square miles? 
the Atlantic, 35 million square miles; the Indian, 28 million 
square miles; the Antartic, 8£, and the Arctic, 4-£ million square 
miles. A fathom is six feet. A nautical mile is 6,080 feet, or 
one geographical mile and 800 feet. A cable’s length is about 
200 yards. 

HEALTHY HOMES 

By a few simple rules which all prudent and wise people may 
carry out in their own homes, the sanitary perils of the seed-time 
of life, remarks Dr. B. W. Richardson, may be kept from the 
homestead as easily as from the prison-house. Let every man 
and his wife be their own sanitarians and make their home a cen¬ 
ter of sanitation. Let in the sun, keep out the damp, separate 
the house from the earth beneath, connect the house with the 
air above; once, nay, twice in the year hold the Jewish Passover, 
and allow no leaven of disease to remain in any corner or crevice. 
Let the house clear itself of all impurities as they are produced; 
eat no unclean thing; drink no impure water; wear no impure 
clothes; do no impure act; and all the good that science can 
render you is at your absolute command. 


BARBED WIRE — WEIGHT OF LOADS. 


3?4 


ADVICE TO BATHERS. 

The ten commandments for bathers: 1, Do not bathe when 
excited; 2, Do not bathe when feeling badly; 3, Do not bathe 
after having been up all night or after excessive exertion, before 
resting several hours; 4, Do not bathe after taking a heavy meal 
or alcoholic drinks; 5, Walk slowly to the bathing place; 6, 
Inquire after the depth and current of the water as soon as you 
arrive there; 7, Undress slowly, but go into the water at once; 
8, Jump into the water with your head first or wet the head 
quickly if you cannot do the first; 9, Do not remain in the water 
too long, especially if you are not very strong; 10, After the 
bath rub the body well to aid the circulation of the blood and 
take moderate exercise. Bathing and swimming is useful for 
body and soul, not alone in warm but also in cool weather, if 
above advice is heeded. 


BARBED WIRE. 

The following table gives an estimate of the number of pounds 
of barbed wire required to fence space or distances mentioned, 
with one, two or three lines of wire, based upon each pound of 
wire measuring one rod (16-J feet). 



1 Line. 

2 Lines. 

3 Lines. 

1 square acre. 

50 % lbs. 

101 % lbs. 

152 lbs. 

1 side of a square acre. 

12 % “ 

M% “ 

38 

1 square half acre. 

36 

72 

108 

1 square mile. 

1,280 

2,560 

3,840 

1 side of a square mile. 

320 

640 

960 

1 rod in length.. 

1 

2 

3 

100 rods in length. 

100 . “ 

200 

300 

100 feet in length.. 

“ 

121^ “ 

18* “ 


WEIGHT OF LOADS. 

The following table, computed from actual experience, will 
be found very useful in calculating the weight of loads, etc., or 
the weight of any of the articles in bulk. It shows the weight 
per cubic foot. 





















TO MEASURE CORM IM THE CRIB. 

375 

Cast-iron. 


Loose earth.. 

... 95 lbs. 

Water. 

. 62^ “ 

Common soil, compact... 

...124 “ 

White pine, 

seasoned. 

Clay, about. 

..135 “ 

about. 

. 30 “ 

Clay, with stones. 

..160 “ 

White oak. 


Brick.. 

...125 “ 


The following shows the bulk of a ton of different substances, 
in cubic feet: 


Sand.. 

Earth, compact. 

Earth, loose.. 

Half-rotted manure, solid 


28 

18 

32 

36 


Half -rotted manure, coarse, about 50 
Timothy hay, moderately 

pressed.500 

Clover, about.750 


TO MEASURE CORM IM THE CRIB. 


This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic 
feet of good, sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of 
shelled corn. To get, then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib 
of corn in the ear, measure the length, breadth and height of 
the crib inside the rail; multiply the length by the breadth, and 
the product by the height; then divide the product by two, and 
you have the number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. 

Another way to measure corn in the crib: Multiply the length, 
breadth and height together in feet; to obtain the cubic feet, 
multiply this product by four, and strike off the right figure, and 
the result will be shelled bushels, nearly. 

To find the Number of Bushels of Grain in a Granary . 
Rule — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, 
and that again by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 
2150 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and for heaped 
bushels 2748, and the quotient will be the answer. 

BRICKS. 

Bricks may be estimated at 24 to a cubic foot, and five courses 
to one foot in height. But as bricks are not often of full size, 
the following" allowances are made for each square foot of the 
surface, on the face of a wall, namely: 


8 inch wall.16 to a square foot 

12 “ “ ...24 “ “ 

16 “ “ .32 “ “ 

20 “ “ .*. 40 “ “ 























376 


SHINGLES. 


SHRINKAGE OF GRAIN. 

Wheat, from the time it is threshed, will shrink two quarts 
to the bushel, or six per cent in six months, in the most favor¬ 
able circumstances. Hence, it follows that ninety-four cents a 
bushel for wheat, when first threshed in August, is as good, 
taking into account the shrinkage alone, as one dollar in the 
following February. 

Corn shrinks much more from the time it is husked. One 
hundred bushels of ears, as they come from the field in Novem¬ 
ber, will be reduced to not far from eighty. So that forty cents 
a bushel for corn in the ear, as it comes from the field, is as good 
as fifty in March, shrinkage only being taken into the account. 

This estimate is taken on the basis of interest at .seven per 
cent, and takes no account of loss by vermin. 

SHINGLES. 

White cedar shingles are the best in use, and when of good 
quality will last forty or fifty years in our northern states. They 
are usually 27 inches long, by from 6 to 7 inches wide; about i 
inch thick at upper end, and about §■ at lower end or butt; and 
are laid in courses about 8^ inches wide, so that not quite -J of a 
shingle is exposed to the weather. 

They are usually laid in three thicknesses, except for an inch 
or two at the upper ends, where there are four. They are nailed 
to sawed shingling-laths of oak or yellow pine; about 16 feet 
long; 2-f- inches wide, and 1 inch thick; placed in horizontal 
rows about 8-J inches apart. These are nailed to the rafters, o 
purlins; which for laths of the foregoing size should not be 
more than two feet apart from center to center. Two nails are 
used to each shingle, near its upper end. They should not be 
of less size than 400 to a pound. Those of wrought-iron being 
the strongest, are the best; cut ones are apt to break by the 
warping of the shingles. Two pounds of such nails will suffice 
for 100 sq. ft. of roof, including waste. An average shingle 7-f¬ 
inches wide, in 8£ inch courses, exposes 63f sq. inches; making 


OLD AGE. 


377 


2£ shingles to a square foot of roof; but to allow for waste, and 
narrow shingles, it is better in practice to allow about three 
shingles to a square* foot. 

Shingling, like slating, must plainly be begun at the eaves, 
and extended upward. 

Cypress and white pine are also much used for shingles, 
being much cheaper, but scarcely half as durable. All shingles 
wear quite thin in time by rain and exposure. In warm damp 
climates they all decay within six to twelve years. 

OLD AGE. 

What are we to reckon as the declining period of maiTs exist¬ 
ence? The point at which old age taps us on the shoulder and 
says it comes to keep us company, varies with every individual. 
It depends a great deal on circumstances, which are hardly the 
same in any two cases. Some writers have said that a man is 
old at forty-five, others have set down seventy as the normal 
standard. Dr. John Gardiner, who has written on “Longevity,” 
remarks: “ Long observation has convinced me that sixty-three 
is an age at which the majority of persons may be termed old, 
and as a general rule, we may adopt this as the epoch of the 
commencing decline of life.” 

Suppose then we agree to call no man old till he is past 
sixty-three. Let us set down the names of some of the illus¬ 
trious people of the world who have prolonged their days of use¬ 
fulness after that age. We shall make a table of them, and be¬ 
gin it with those who have died at seventy — that is to say, with 
those in whom the springs of life have not stood until they have 
had at least seven years of old age. It will be found, however, 
to be far from exhaustive, and every reader may find pleasure in 
adding to it from his own stock of information. 

Age at Death . 

70. —Columbus, Lord Chatham, Petrarch, Copernicus, Spal¬ 
lanzani, Boerhaave, Gall. 

71. —Linnasus, Audubon. 


37S THE PARCELS POST, LOHDOH. 

72. —Charlemagne, Samuel Richardson, Allan Ramsay, John 
Lecke, Necker. 

73. —Charles Darwin, Thorwaldsen, Beecher. 

74. —Handel, Frederick the Great, Dr. Jenner. 

75. —Haydn, Dugald Stewart, Henry Clay, Longfellow. 

76. —Bossuet. 

7 l .—Thomas Telford, Sir Joseph Banks, Lord Beaconsfield. 

78. —Galileo, Corneille. 

79. —William Harvey, Robert Stevenson, Henry Cavendish. 

80. —Plato, Wordsworth, Ralph Waldo' Emerson, Kant. 
Thiers, William Cullen. 

81. —Buffon, Edward Young, Sir Edward Coke, Lord Palm¬ 
erston, John Q. Adams 

82. —Arnauld. 

83. ^-Wellington, Goethe, Victor Hugo, Thomas Jefferson. 

84. —Voltaire, Talleyrand, Sir William Herschel, Bryant. 

85. —Cato the Wise, Newton, Benjamin Franklin, Jeremy 
Bentham. 

86. -—Earl Russell, Edmund Halley, Carlyle, Thomas Clark¬ 
son. 

.88.—John Wesley. 

89. —Michael Angelo. 

90. —Sophocles. 

91. —John Adams. 

99.—Titian. 

100.—Fontenelle. 

THE PARCELS POST, LOITDOH. 

There is no end to the variety of objects gathered together 
in a basket connected with the parcels post. On a recent visit 
to the General Postoffice, London, there were seen fifteen tons 
of price lists sent out from one of the large cooperative stores, 
several hundred iron spades from Sheffield, without any packing 
beyond the address label stuck on the end; several dozen* hat 
boxes; a couple of hundred umbrellas and walking sticks; nearly 
a hundred lawn tennis bats; parcels of wet flowers; with the 


THE WEIGHT OF MAH’S BRADS'. 379 

paper peeling off; a sucking-pig in brown paper, with its head 
exposed; two boxes of bees; over 100 parcels of fish, mostly tied 
in reeds; the same number of bottles of medicine; and several 
thousand parcels, of different shapes and sizes, the contents of 
which it is impossible to guess. This extraordinary assortment 
represented one night’s despatch, the various items going to 
every part of the United Kingdom. 

THE WEIGHT OF MAX’S BRAIH. 

Man has not only relatively, but absolutely, the heaviest 
brain of all animals save two—the elephant and the whale. The 
average weight of man’s brain is forty-nine and one-half ounces; 
woman’s, forty-four ounces. The brain in idiots is remarkably 
small; indeed, some such have weighed but fifteen, thirteen, and 
eight ounces apiece. Many men of great mind-power have pos¬ 
sessed unusually heavy brains. Witness the historically famous 
brain of Cuvier, sixty-four and one-half ounces; also those of 
Schiller, Agassiz, D. Webster, Spurzheim, Chalmers, De Morgan, 
etc. The more intellectual nations have generally the larger 
skulls. Of one hundred Parisian skulls twenty-eight had a 
capacity of more than sixteen hundred cubic centimeters; of 
one hundred negroes’ skulls, only nine exceeded this capacity. 

WHO ARE CREOLES? 

A general impression prevails that a Creole must be a colored 
person. As a matter of fact, any one born in a West Indian 
colony is a Creole of that colony, whether he or she be English, 
Scotch, Irish, Chinese, Hindoo, or Portuguese in blood. If a 
Chinese boy, born in Trinidad or British Guiana, were asked if 
he was a Chinaman, he would promptly reply that he was a 
Creole’of that colony. Any native of tropical America, except a 
full-blooded Indian, is a Creole; in Louisiana, a person of French 
descent is a Creole. 

THE THREE GOLDEH BALLS. 

The Medici family, whose arms were three gilded pills, in 


380 


THE HAIR IN DRESS. 


allusion to their profession of medicine, were great money-lenders 
of Florence, and their arms suggested the adoption by pawn¬ 
brokers of the three golden balls. 

YELLOWSTONE PARK. 

Yellowtone Park is a large tract of country, embracing 
some thousands of acres, on the borders of Dakota and Montana 
territories, chiefly noted for its a Geysers,” or hot mineral 
springs, and its splendid scenery. A company has been formed, 
and is actively employed in laying out the grounds, erecting 
handsome buildings, and taking active means to insure its popu¬ 
larity and success as a health resort, conducted on the basis of 
the German watering spas. 

THE HAIR IN DRESS. 

The hair is a very important factor in dress, having more to 
do with the general appearance than most people imagine. 
Indeed, when we reflect how many diverse and picturesque ways 
exist of dressing the hair, it is somewhat astonishing to see, as 
we do in this free country, heads turned out by the hundreds 
and thousands, curl for curl, and pin for pin alike. The color 
and texture of the hair have much to do with the question 
of its effective arrangement. And first we must protest against 
the vulgar and indiscriminate use of the curling irons. In our 
opinion, no woman whose hair is naturally straight should try 
to make it artificially curly. Nature gives to every face the hair 
which suits it best. Black hair, for instance, painfully frizzed 
and curled, is always objectionable; while the softer and silkier 
kinds of hair look admirable treated in shining bands or plaits. 
The somewhat coarse flaxen and ruddy locks, which one sees so 
often on Anglo-Saxon heads, are especially adapted for wearing 
curly; while the chestnut hair, which is now so frequently imi¬ 
tated, is seen at its best in heavy plaits. Dyeing the hair flaxen 
or red is a ridiculous and futile practice, for in nine cases out of 
ten the complexion, by its different tone, betrays the artifice. 
A sallow skin crowned by golden locks is a sufficiently diverting 


MIRROR-PAINTING. 


381 


spectacle, and so also is the pale mauve complexion, which it has 
been our lot to see with several obviously dyed heads. 

MIRROR-PAINTING. 

The first step in mirror-painting is to decide upon the design. 
If this is hut a copy, take a tracing of it off upon ordinary 
tracing-paper; if it is to be an original, arrange the selected 
flowers in a good position; exclude all but the north light, and 
draw them to size upon drawing-paper, and tint them with water- 
colors to indicate their coloring, where the deepest shadows 
should fall, and where the reflected lights thrown from a trans¬ 
parent leaf or petal on to another part of the design appear. By 
thus obtaining permanent directions as to the management of 
these important details, the worker can rearrange the real flowers 
daily, so that the same effect is produced throughout the paint¬ 
ing, and she will not be worried by finding that, at a second sit¬ 
ting, all her flowers that were in full shadow are now in light. 
Take a tracing of the chief outlines of this sketch, rub the glass 
quite clean with a chamois leather, and lay the tracing paper 
upon it, with a sheet of red carbonized paper between the glass 
and the papor; with the point of a hard pencil go over the traced 
lines steadily, and remove both papers, when the outline will be 
clearly seen on the glass. Mix a little flake white with medium, 
add to it a color that matches one of the flower tints, and secure 
their outlines by going over them with this color in a fine brush. 
Match one of the shades of the leaves, and work in leaves and 
stems with the green mixture, but work in the first painting of 
the flowers before the outline has dried and before the leaf-out¬ 
line is secured. Work in the deepest shadows first, then the 
half-tints, and lastly the high lights. Mix all these shades on 
the palette with the medium, apply them with an even hand, 
and soften and run their edges into each other with a clean and dry 
brush. Use as little paint as possible; put it on with but few 
touches, and be careful that the outline of each petal is clear and 
not ragged-looking. Having toned in the chief petals, work at the 
under-petals, and imitate the transparent look of the natural 


382 


FLOATING GARDENS AND FIELDS. 


under part of a petal through which the light is passing by a 
soft gradation from dark to light, making the tone lighter than 
nature and running the paint together with a fitch brush, whose 
hairs are softer than sables. While the paint is drying outline 
the leaves and fill in their shadows, medium, reflected, and high 
lights, and leave the work until dry, when repaint the flowers 
' and leaves, softening the color, but bringing it up to its natural 
tones, deepening such shadows as lie close to the high or reflected 
lights, and blending together crude masses of coloring. In the 
final painting add the peculiar markings of the flowers, vein the 
leaves, and lightly apply washes of transparent color where the 
colors require warming up or toning down. 

FLOATING GARDENS AND FIELDS. 

Amongst the most remarkable illustrations of human energy, 
industry and ingenuity are the floating fields and gardens which 
exist in the valley of Kashmir, in Eastern Asia, and on Lake 
Tezcuco, and in the valley of Mexico, America. In the country 
separating India and China there is much that moves the travel¬ 
er's wonder, but nothing perhaps more interesting than the 
floating gardens on the lake, or Dol, by the little old city so 
famous for its shawls, called of old Srinagar, and now known as 
Kashmir. In the formation of these floating gardens of Kash¬ 
mir, their owners avail themselves of the thick growth of grasses 
and aquatic plants which spring up from the bottom of the 
lakes, as water lilies, confervse, sedges, reeds, etc., all inter¬ 
twined and entangled one with another. Avenues are cut 
amongst these by the boats, separating them into angular sec¬ 
tions of varying lengths and breadths. The plants and grasses 
are then cut away from their roots at a depth of about two feet 
under the water. When so detached they retain their solidity, 
and are pressed somewhat more closely together. Sedges, twigs, 
reeds, and roots are next placed over the patch lengthways, and 
over these mud is spread, fished up from the bottom of the river. 
This gradually permeates and binds together the matted mass of 
twigs, reeds, and rushes, and when the surface is thus made. 


HINTS FOR DRAUGHTSMEN. 


383 


willow stakes are driven through it and down into the bed of the 
lake, so that the floating garden will rise or fall with the rising 
or sinking water, but will not escape from its place. By means 
of a long pole thrust amongst the weeds at the bottom of the Dol 
and twisted around several times in one direction, a quantity of 
plants are brought up and carried in the boat to the prepared 
platform or raft, where they are twisted into conical hillocks 
about two feet in circumference at the base and the same height. 
A hollow place is made on the top of each, and this is filled with 
the soft river mud, to which is sometimes, but not often, added 
wood ashes. These are for the reception of melon and cucumber 
plants. Bloating gardens and fields, called chinampas, also exist 
in Mexico, where they were originally constructed to afford the 
inhabitants protection against invaders. They are raised with 
reeds, bushes, turf, and mud, and were sometimes big and strong 
enough to support a dwelling-house. These floating garden-beds 
are still to be found anchored upon the waters of the Chaleo 
Canal. 

HINTS FOR DRAUGHTSMEN. 

The surface of a sphere equals the square of the circumfer¬ 
ence multiplied by 0.3183. 

The diameter of a sphere equals the square root of its surface 
multiplied by 0.56419. 

The side of an inscribed cube equals the radius multiplied by 

1.1547. 

The diameter of a circle equals the square root of the area 
multiplied by 1.12838. 

The diameter of a sphere equals the cube root of its solidity 
multiplied by 1.2407. 

The circumference of a circle equals the diameter multiplied 
by 3.1416, which is the ratio of the circumference to the diame¬ 
ter: 

The area of a triangle equals the base multiplied by one-half 
of its height. 


384 


HINTS IN BUYING MACHINERY. 


The diameter of a circle equals the circumference multiplied 
by 0.31831. 

The side of an inscribed equilateral triangle equals the di¬ 
ameter of the circle multiplied by 0.86. 

The surface equals the product of the diameter and circum¬ 
ference. . 

The radius of a circle equals the circumference multiplied by 
0.159155. 

The circumference of a circle multiplied by 0.282 equals one 
side of a square of the same area. 

The area of a circle equals the square of the radius multiplied 
by 3.1416. 

The square root of the surface of a sphere multiplied by 
1.772454 equals the circumference. 

The area of a circle equals one-quarter of the diameter mul¬ 
tiplied by the circumference. 

The area of an ellipse equals the product of both diameters 
and .7854. 

The radius of a circle equals the square root of the area mul¬ 
tiplied by 0.56419. 

The circumference of a sphere equals the cube root of its 
solidity multiplied by 3.8978. 

The side of a square equals the diameter of a circle of the 
*$ame area multiplied by 0.8862. 

The side of an inscribed square equals the diameter multi¬ 
plied by 0.7071. 

HINTS IN BUYING MACHINERY. 

On buying a machine, see that, whether new or second-hand, 
it is strong and well made. Consider the standing of the maker, 
both as mechanician and machinist. A light-framed or shakily- 
fitted machine will be dear at any price. Do not be deceived by 
any beauty of paint or finish on exposed work, which adds noth¬ 
ing to the usefulness of the machine, and which may draw the 
eye from an examination of the working parts. Uncover the 
boxes and see whether the finish of shafts in their bearings or 


CAPACITY OP BOXES, BINS, ETC. 385 

journals is as smooth and true as the white and brass work of 
more exposed pieces. Take out, here and there, screws and 
bolts; see if the threads are deep, sharp, and well-fitted. Look 
closely at the fitting of all toothed or pinion wheels; note 
whether they have been cast and filed to fit, or whether they 
have been accurately cut by automatic machinery, so that they 
will fit in any position. Slowly turn pinion wheels, and »ote 
whether there is any rattling or lost motion, or whether the teeth 
fit snugly, yet freely, so as to give even, steady motion. Closely 
examine all castings for pin holes or air bubbles, which may be 
most easily detected in work that has been planed. See that 
castings are heavy as well as solid. Look after oil holes and pro¬ 
visions for oiling. See that the castings are neatly fitted; that 
they do not show the marks of the hammer or file, which must 
be used to connect them if they have been forced or badly put 
together. Pay attention to the noise made by the machine when 
in motion. If fairly fitted the noise will be uniform; if badly 
fitted, it will be variable or grating. While these remarks apply 
more particularly to machinery more or less delicate, there are 
points which all purchasers should attend to. 

CAPACITY OF BOXES, BINS, ETC. 

By the United States standard, 2,150 cubic inches make a 
bushel; a cubic foot contains 1,728 cubic inches. Rule—Multi¬ 
ply the number of feet width of bin, by the length, the result by 
the depth, then divide the product by 5 and multiply the quo¬ 
tient by 4, which number will give the quantity in bushels. 


Length. 

5 ft 

Breadth. 

.3 ft. 

Depth. 

.2 ft.will contain.. 

Bushels. 
.24 

5 “ 

3 “. 

.3 “.“ 

i i 

.36 

x •* 

3 “. 

.4 “. 

a 

.48 

7 “... 

.5 “. 

.3ft.9in... “ 

i i 

.100 

Q “ 

fi “ . 

.5 ft.“ 

•* 

.216 

13 “ . 

.8“. 

. 6 “ . “ 

i i 

.500 


A box four feet eight inches long, two feet four inches wide, 
and two feet four inches deep, will contain twenty bushels, 

25 



























386 


HINTS ON THE CARE OF TOOLS, 


A box twenty-four inches by sixteen inches square, and 
twenty-eight inches deep, will contain a barrel. 

A box twenty-six by fifteen and a half inches square, and 
eight inches deep, will contain a bushel. 

A box twelve inches by eleven and a half inches square, and 
nine inches deep, will contain a half bushel. 

A box eight by eight inches square, and eight inches deep, 
will contain a peck. 

A box eight by eight inches square, and four and one-eighth 
inches deep, will contain one gallon. 

A box seven by eight inches square, and four and one-eighth 
inches deep, will contain a half gallon. 

A box four by four inches square, and four and one-fourth 
inches deep, will contain a quart. 

HINTS ON THE CARE OF TOOLS. 

Wooden Parts —The wooden parts of tools, such as the stocks 
of planes and handles of chisels, are often made to have a nice 
appearance by French polishing; but this adds nothing to their 
durability. A much better plan is to let them soak in linseed 
oil for a week, and rub them with a cloth for a few minutes 
every day for a week or two. This produces a beautiful surface, 
and at the same time exerts a solidifying and preservative action 
on the wood. 

Iron Parts —Rust preventives. The following receipts are 
recommended for preventing rust on iron and steel surfaces: 

1. Caoutchouc oil is said to have proved efficient in prevent¬ 
ing rust, and to have been adopted by the German army. It 
only requires to be spread with a piece of flannel in a very thin 
layer over the metallic surface, and allowed to dry up. Such a 
coating will afford security against all atmospheric influences, 
and will not show any cracks under the microscope after a 
year’s standing. To remove it, the article has simply to be 
treated with caoutchouc oil again, and washed after twelve to 
twenty-four hours. 


HINTS ON THE CARE OF TOOLS. 


387 


2. A solution of India rubber in benzine lias been used for 
years as a coating for steel, iron and lead, and has been found a 
simple means of keeping them from oxidizing. It can be easily 
applied with a brush, and is easily rubbed off. It should be 
made about the consistency of cream. 

3. All steel articles can be perfectly preserved from rust by 
putting a lump of freshly-burnt lime in the drawer or case in 
which they are kept. If the things are to be moved (as a gun 
in its case for instance), put the lime in a muslin bag. This is 
especially valuable for specimens of iron when fractured, for in 
a moderately dry place the lime will not want any renewing for 
many years, as it is capable of absorbing a large quantity of 
moisture. Articles in use should be placed in a box nearly 
filled with thorouglhy pulverized slacked lime. Before using 
them rub well with a woolen cloth. 

4 . The following mixture forms an excellent brown coating 
for protecting iron and steel from rust: Dissolve two parts crys¬ 
tallized iron chloride, two antimony chloride, and one tannin, 
in four of water, and apply with sponge or rag and let dry. 
Then another coat of paint is applied, and again another, if 
necessary, until the color becomes as dark as desired. When dry 
it is washed with water, allowed to dry again, and the surface 
polished with boiled linseed oil. The antimony chloride must 
be as nearly neutral as possible. 

5. To keep tools from rusting, take one-half ounce camphor, 
dissolve in one pound melted lard; take off the scum and mix in 
as much fine lead (graphite) as will give it an iron color. Clean 
the tools and smear with this mixture. After twenty-four hours 
rub clean with a soft linen cloth. The tools will keep clean for 
months under ordinary circumstances. 

6. Put one quart ‘fresh-slacked lime, one-half pound wash¬ 
ing soda, one half-pound soft soap in a bucket, and sufficient 
water to cover the articles; put in the tools as soon as possible 
after use, and wipe them up next morning, or let them remain 
until wanted. 



388 


HINTS ON THE CAKE OF TOOLS. 


7. Soft soap, with half its weight of pearlash, one ounce of 
mixture in about one gallon boiling water, is in every-day use in 
most engineers* shops in the drip-cans used for turning long 
articles bright in wrought-iron and steel. The work, though 
constantly moist, does not rust, and bright nuts are immersed 
in it for days till wanted, and retain their polish. 

8. Melt slowly together six ounces or eight ounces lard to 
one ounce resin, stirring till cool; when it is semi-fluid it is 
ready for use. If too thick, it may be further let down by coal 
oil or benzine. Rubbed on bright surfaces ever so thinly it pre¬ 
serves the polish effectually, and may be readily rubbed off. 

9. To protect metals from oxidation — polished iron or 
steel, for instance — the requisite is to exclude air and moisture 
from the actual metallic surface; therefore, polished tools are 
usually kept in wrappings of oil cloth and brown paper, and, 
thus protected, they will preserve a spotless face for an unlim¬ 
ited time. When these metals come to be of necessity exposed, 
in being converted to use, it is necessary to protect them by 
means of some permanent dressing; and boiled linseed oil, 
which forms a lasting film or covering as it dries on, is one of 
the best preservatives, if not the best. But in order to give it 
body, it should be thickened by the addition of some pigment, 
and the very best — because the most congenial — of pigment is 
the ground oxide of the same metal, or, in plain words, rusted 
iron reduced to an impalpable powder, for the dressing of iron 
or steel, which thus forms the pigment or red oxide paint. 

WHEN THE WORLD GETS OLD. 

The age of the earth is placed by some at 500,000,000 years 
and still others of later time, among them the Duke of Argyll, 
places it at 10,000,000 years, knowing what processes it has gone 
through. Other planets go through the same process. The 
reason that other planets differ so much from the earth is that 
they are in a much earlier or later stage of existence. The earth 
must become old. Newton surmised, although he could give 


SOME COMMON - GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 


389 


no reason for it, that the earth would at one time lose all its 
water and become dry. Since then it has been found that 
Newton was correct. As the earth keeps cooling it will become 
porous, and cavities will be formed in the interior, which will 
take in the water. It is estimated this process is now in prog¬ 
ress so far that the water diminishes at the rate of about the 
thickness of a sheet of writing paper each year At this rate in 
6,000,000 years the water will have sunk a mile, and in 15,000- 
000 years the water will have disappeared from the face of the 
globe. The nitrogen and the oxygen in the atmosphere are also 
diminishing all the time. It is in an inappreciable degree, but the 
time will come when the air will be so thin that no creatures we 
know can breathe and live; the time will come when the world 
cannot support life. That will be the period of old age, and 
then will come death. 

SOME COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. 

Say you were, not you was; it was I, or we, or they, not it 
was me, or us, or them; fewer people were there, not less 
people; he taught me, not he learned me; put it on the table, 
not onto the table; he advised or counseled me to use the book, 
not he recommended me to do so; she looks pretty to-day, not 
prettily, although we may say, “ she looked prettily at her friends 
while thanking them for their kindness.” Do not say “ I done;” 
I did or have done, is correct. So also “ I seen” is a barbarism 
often encountered; I, you, we or they, saw or have seen, should 
be used instead. Do not say “ She invited the General and I,” 
“ I do not like that sort of things,” “It was different last year 
than now.” Say, “She invited the General and me.” Always 
speak of yourself and another as though speaking of yourself 
alone, and surely no one would say she invited I. “I do not 
like those sorts of things.” For obvious reasons no grammar 
needed there. “ It was different last year from now.” It is habit¬ 
ual with some people to talk of oysters, or fruit or cabbage, as 
being “healthy” or the reverse. Be precise; an oyster may be in 


390 


WHERE PLANTS ORIGINATED. 


the enjoyment of robust health, and, as an article of food, is 
wholesome or not, according to the season.” 

WHAT IT COSTS TO SMOKE. 


[Six per cent compound interest semi-annually being reckoned upo n the money.] 


From the age of— 

Two Cigars a Day at 

5 Cents Each. 

Three Cigars a Day at 

5 Cents Each. 

Principal. 

Prin. & Int. 

Principal. 

Prin. & Int* 

20 to 25 years. 

20 to 30 “ . 

20 to 35 “ . 

20 to 40 “ . 

20 to 45 “ . 

20 to 50 “ . 

20 to 55 “ . 

20 to 60 “ . 

20 to 65 *• . 

20 to 70 “ . 

$ 182.50 
365.00 

574.50 
730.00 

912.50 
1,095.00 

1.277.50 
1,460.00 

1.642.50 
1,825.00 

$ 209.21 
490.39 
868.25 
1,376.08 
2,058.44 
3,094.99 
4,367.46 
6,078.73 
8,378.52 
11,469.25 

$ 273.75 
547.50 
821.25 
1.095.00 

1.368.75 

1.642.50 
1,916.25 
2,190.00 

2.463.75 

2.737.50 

$ 313.95 
745.74 
1,314.72 
2,081.16 
3,110.74 
4,494.41 
6,353.87 
8,855.02 

12.215.36 

16.216.37 


WHERE PLANTS ORIGINATED. 

The apple came from Europe; the celery came from North¬ 
ern Europe; the chestnut came from Italy; the citron came from 
Greece; the cucumber came from the East Indies; the garden 
cress came from Egypt; the horse-chestnut came from Thibet; 
the horseradish came from Southern Europe; the mulberry tree 
came from Persia; the nettle came from Europe; the oats came 
from North Africa; the onion came from Egypt; the parsley 
came from Sardinia; the peach came from Persia; the pear came 
from Europe; the peas came from Egypt; the pine came from 
America; the poppy came from the East; the potato came from 
America; the quince came from the island of Crete; the radish 
came from China and Japan; rye came from Siberia; the spinach 
came from Arabia; the sunflower came from Peru; tobacco came 
from America; the walnut came from Persia. 

VITALITY OF SEEDS. 

The following shows the limit of time beyond which the seeds 
of the common garden vegetables become useless for sowing: 
Beans, two years; beets, seven years; cabbage, four years; carrot. 


























AGES OF BIRDS AND ANIMALS. 


391 


two years; celery, two years; cucumber, ten years; lettuce, three 
years; melon, ten years; onion, one year; parsnip, one year; peas, 
two years; radish, three years; squash, ten years; sweet corn, two 
years; tomato, seven years; turnip, four years. 

AGES ATTAINED BY BIRDS. 

A blackbird lives twelve years; a blackcap, fifteen; a canary, 
twenty-four; a crane, twenty-four; a crow, one hundred; an 
eagle, ©ne hundred; a fowl, common, ten; a goldfinch, fifteen; 
a goose, fifty; a heron, sixty; a lark, eighteen; a linnet, twenty- 
three; a nightingale, eighteen; a parrot, sixty; a partridge, 
fifteen; a peacock, twenty-four; a pelican, fifty; a pheasant, 
fifteen; a pigeon, twenty; a raven, one hundred; a robin, twelve; 
a skylark, thirty; a sparrow hawk, forty; a swan, one hundred; 
a thrush, ten; a wren, three. 

AGES ATTAINED BY DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 

An elephant lives four hundred years; a whale, three hun¬ 
dred; a tortoise, one hundred; a camel, forty; a horse, twenty- 
five; a bear, twenty; a lion, twenty; an ox, twenty-five; a cat, 
fifteen; a dog, fourteen; a sheep, ten; a squirrel, eight; a guinea 
pig, seven. 

TINTS AND COLORS PRODUCED BY THE COMBINATION OF PAINTS 
AND INKS. 

To make bottle green, mix dark green and purple; to make 
a buff tint, mix white and medium yellow; to make dark brown, 
mix red, black and blue; to make dark green, mix bronze, blue, 
lemon yellow and black; to make drab tint, mix white, medium 
yellow and black; to make flesh tint, mix white, lake and lemon 
yellow; to make grass green, mix lemon yellow and bronze blue; 
to make gray tint, mix white and black; to make lavender tint, 
mix white and purple; to make maroon, mix red, black and 
medium yellow; to make magenta, mix lake and purple; to make 
olive green, mix medium yellow and purple; to make orange, 
mix medium yellow and red; to make pearl tint, mix white. 


392 


BUSHELS OF SEED TO THE ACRE. 


ultramarine blue and blacK; to make pink, mix white and lake; 
to make purple, mix ultramarine blue and lake; to make russet, 
mix orange, lake and purple; to make sienna, mix medium yel¬ 
low, red and white; to make sky blue, mix white and ultra- 
marine blue; to make slate, mix ultramarine blue, black and 
white; to make Turkey red, mix vermilion and black; to make 
umber, mix white, yellow, red and black. 

BUSHELS OF SEED TO THE ACRE 

The following different varieties of seed show the quantity 
of each required to plant an acre: Wheat requires 1J to 2 bushels 
to the acre; barley, 1| to 2-J-; oats, 2 to 4; rye, 1 to 2; buck¬ 
wheat, f to 1|; millet, 1 to 1-J-; corn, i to 1; beans, 1 to 2; peas, 
2-J- to 3-J; hemp, 1 to 1-J; flax, -j- to 2; rice, 2 to 2-J; broom corn, 
1 to 1potatoes, 5 to 10; timothy, 12 to 24 quarts; mustard, 8 
to 20; herd’s grass, 12 to 16; flat -turnip, 2 to 3 pounds; red 
clover, 10 to 16; white clover, 3 to 4; blue grass, 10 to 15; orchard 
grass, 20 to 30; carrots, 4 to 5; parsnips, 6 to 8. 

DISTANCES BY WATER FROM NEW YORK TO FOREIGN PORTS. 

Distance from New York to Alexandria, Egypt, is 5,095 
miles; to Amsterdam, Holland, 3,530; to Bermudas, West 
Indies, 680; to Bombay, India, 11,555; to Bordeaux, France, 
3,334; to Brussels, Belgium, 3,418; to Cape of Good Hope, 
Africa, 6,840; to Cape Horn, South America, 7,000; to Con¬ 
stantinople, Turkey, 5,154; to Copenhagen, Denmark, 3,650; 
to Calcutta, India, 12,510; to Canton, China, 14,105; to Gib¬ 
raltar, Spain, 3,290; to Glasgow, Scotland, 2,934; to Halifax, 
Nova Scotia, 563; to Havana, Cuba, 1,275; to Lima, Peru, 11,- 
312; to Lisbon, Portugal, 3,184; to London, England, 3,376; 
to Liverpool, England, 3,080; to Madras, British India, 11,840; 
to Naples, Italy, 4,327; to Pekin, China, 15,325; to Pernambuco, 
Brazil, 4,926; to St. John, Newfoundland, 785; to St. Peters¬ 
burg, Russia, 4,432; to - Sandwich Islands, 7,150; to San 

Francisco, California, 18,843; to Shanghai, China, 14,510; to 


AREA AND POPULATION. 


393 


Stockholm, Sweden, 4,075; Valparaiso, Chili, 4,813; Vera Cruz, 
Mexico, 2,185; Vienna, Austria, 4,095; Yokohama, Japan, 7,523. 

AREA AND POPULATION OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF THE 
WORLD. 

Argentine Republic, area, 1,090,757; population, 2,942,000; 
Australia, area, 2,971,003; population, 2,335,168; Austria-Hun¬ 
gary, area, 240,922; population, 37,741,434; Belgium, area, 
11,373; population, 5,585,846; Bolivia, area, 498,940; popula¬ 
tion, 2,325,000; Brazil, area, 3,217,645; population, 11,831,326; 
British Empire, area, 7,890,200; population, 253,521,755; 
Dominion of Canada, area, 3,372,290; population, 4,324,810; 
Chili, area, 244,910; population, 2,241,182; Chinese Empire, 
area-, 4,559,369; population, 434,600,000; Colombia, area, 319,- 
500; population, 3,000,000; Denmark, area, 14,782; population, 
1,969,039; Ecuador, area, 247,420; population, 946,033; Egypt, 
area, 1,148,845; population, 16,400,000; French Republic, area, 
738,681; population, 46,922,048; German Empire, area, 212,083; 
population, 45,234,061; Great Britain and Ireland, area, 121,- 
608; population, 35,246,502; Greece, area, 25,041; population, 
1,979,423; India, British, area, 899,341; population, 198,790,853; 
Italy, area, 114,926; population, 28,459,451; Japan, area, 148,- 
456; population, 36,358,994; Mexico, area, 748,355; population, 
9,787,629; Netherlands (Holland), area, 12,690; population, 
4,172,971; Peru, area, 503,000; population, 2,699,000; Portu¬ 
gal, area, 36,510; population, 4,306,554; Russian Empire, area, 
8,397,988; population, 100,372,560; Kingdom of Spain, area, 
363,168; population, 25,053,860; Sweden and Norway, area, 
293,848; population, 6,492,115; Switzerland, area, 15,992; 
population, 2,846,102; Turkish Empire, area, 2,396,692; popu¬ 
lation, 43,391,000; United States, area, 3,602,990; population, 
65,155,783; Venezuela, area, 439,120; population, 2,075,245. 

COMPOUND INTEREST. 

Any sum of money will double at 2 per cent interest, in 35 
years; at 3 per cent, in 23 years 5i months; at 4 per cent, in 


394 


COMPOUND INTEREST, 


17 years 8 months; at 5 per cent, in 15 years months; at 6 
per cent, in 14 years 11 months; at 7 per cent, in 10 years 3 
months; at 8 per cent, in 9 years; at 9 per cent, in 8 years 
and i month; at 10 per cent, in 7 years 3| months. 

POWER AVAILABLE FOR INDUSTRIES. 



Human 

workers. 

Horses. 

Steam 

horse¬ 

power. 

Rivers, 

horse¬ 

power. 

Total 

horse¬ 

power.^ 

IRatio. 

United Kingdom. 

22,570 

2,906 

7,780 

4,520 

17,466 

7.5 

France. 

27,765 

2,833 

3,513 

6,130 

15,253 

6.6 

Germany. 

30,074 

3,360 

4,325 

6,040 

16,735 

• 7.2 

Russia. 

49,520 

* 16,200 

1,365 

36,115 

58,630 

25.0 

Austria. 

25,008 

3,760 

1,280 

5,830 

13,370 

5.7 

Italy... 

18,310 

658 

480 

3,960 

6,929 

2.9 

Spain. 

11,120 

590 

483 

2,220 

4,405 

1.8 

Portugal. 

2,780 

70 

66 

640 

1,054 

0.5 

Belgium. 

3,776 

283 

595 

370 

1,626 

0.7 

Holland. 

2,690 

280 

216 

640 

1,405 

0.6 

Scandinavia . .*. 

5,810 

970 

416 

6,360 

8,327 

3.6 

Switzerland. 

1,815 

110 

253 

650 

1,195 

0.5 

Roumania. 

3,520 

550 

30 

1,160 

2,152 

0.9 

Servia.... 

1,070 

140 

35 

450 

732 

0.3 

Greece. 

1,020 

97 

20 

420 

640 

0.2 

Europe.. 

United States.... . .. 

Total. 

206,848 

30,116 

32,807 

11,202 

20,917 

8.152 

75,505 

61,150 

149,919 

83,516 

64.0 

36.0 

236,964 

44,009 

29,069 

136,655 

233,435 

100.0 


All the above powers may be considered in active use, except the rivers, 
of which less than one-tenth of the power is turned to any use. 


AVERAGE VELOCITIES OF VARIOUS BODIES. 


A man walks. 

A horse trots. 

A horse runs. 

Steamboat runs. 

Sailing vessel runs. 

Slow rivers flow. 

Rapid rivers flow. 

A moderate wind blows 

A storm moves. 

A hurricane moves_ 

A rifle ball moves. 

Sound moves .... 

Light moves. 

Electricity moves. 


Per hour. Per Sec. 


3 miles, or 

4 feet. 

7 . 

a 

or 

10 

< i 

20 

a 

or 

29 

it 

18 

a 

or 

26 

it 

10 

a 

or 

14 

ft 

3 

a 

or 

4 

ft 

7 

a 

or 

10 

it 

7 

ft 

or 

10 

it 

36 

a 

or 

52 

it 

80 

1t 

or 

117 

it 

1,000 

a 

or 1,466 

it 

743 

i t 

or 1,142 

it 


: 192,000 miles per sec. 
.288,000 miles “ “ 
































































THE TEEM “ HOESE-rOWEE.^ 


395 


The term horse-power, referring to a boiler, has no definite 
meaning. In the early days of the steam engine when there 
was little difference in the details of engines and boiler, it 
usually happened that a boiler large enough to furnish one 
engine with steam would answer for any other of the same size. 
As the power of the early engines was in direct proportion to 
their size, any boiler of certain dimensions would furnish steam 
for an engine developing a definite horse-power, and hence was 
said to be a boiler of a certain horse-power. As improvements, 
however, were introduced, and various forms of boilers and 
engines were adopted, it was found that the size of the boiler 
was not always a measure of its efficiency, and that different, 
engines required very different quantities of steam to develop a 
given horse-power. Thus it frequently happens that what is a 
10 horse-power boiler for one engine, or a boiler that furnishes 
steam to develop 10 horse-power in that engine, may be only a 5 
horse-power boiler for a more wasteful engine. Under these cir¬ 
cumstances it is impossible to decide what is the horse-power of 
a boiler in case of dispute. If, on the contrary, the rating of the 
boiler is based upon its evaporation under given conditions, a sim¬ 
ple experiment will settle whether it is working up to its rating. 

NICE DISCEIMINATIONS IN WOEDS. 

Pretty refers to external beauty on a small scale. Grace of 
manner is a natural gift; elegance implies cultivation. Well-bred 
is referable to general conduct rather than individual actions. 
Beautiful is the strongest word of its class, implying softness 
and delicacy in addition to everything that is in similar words. 
Courtesy has reference to others, politeness to ourselves. The 
former is a duty or privilege to others, the latter is behavior 
assumed from proper self-respect. Benevolent refers to the 
character of the agent acting, beneficent to the act performed. 
Charitable is restricted to almsgiving except when used in refer¬ 
ence to judgment of others. Lovely is used only where there is 
something more than external beauty; when there is a combina¬ 
tion of personal beauty and pleasing manner. Faultless features 
do not make a lady lovely who is disagreeable in disposition. 


CHAPTER XXXI. 


IMPORTANCE OF BREATHING PURE AIR. 



X abundance of pure, fresh air, is an indispensable 
condition to the manufacture of bright, arterial 
blood. We receive air into our human body prim¬ 
arily by the rise and activity of our lungs, the great 
respiratory organs of the physical system; and 
secondarily, through the multitudinous pores of the 
human skin. That the lungs may perform their 
important functions to the best advantage, it is nec¬ 
essary that we should take a sufficient amount of 
daily exercise. It would be well, especially for all 
young men and women, that they should take a 
regular course of calisthenic or athletic exercises. 

These calisthenic and athletic exercises insure other valuable 
results beside the rapid purification of the blood, such as the 
easy digestion and perfect assimilation of food, the ready pro¬ 
duction of tissues and fibers for the whole physical system, and 
the generation of that peculiar power which we call nerve force; 
but we must always remember that all these, and any other pos¬ 
sible good results, are entirely dependent upon the inspiration 
o/pure fresh air, and the consequent production of pure, bright 
arterial blood. Well regulated exercise, in a pure atmosphere, 
is far better than any “cure-all,” since it gives the nearest pos¬ 
sible approach to a “Universal Save-All,” saving us from impu¬ 
rities of the blood, and the thousand pains and penalties these 
must surely involve. Walking is the only exercise available for 
a great army of busy toilers, and if they would walk from two to 
six miles per day, they would be the better in mind, body and 

396 











IMPORTANCE OF BREATHING PURE AIR. 397 

estate. No other exercise is as good as walking; and for the 
mothers whose toils and cares bind them to the house, and who 
find or fancy that they cannot get out, a most decided gain to 
the physical system, and therefore to the happiness of life, may 
be insured by standing at the open door or casement, for an 
hour or two every day, in the sunlight when possible. Daily 
exercise is an invaluable means for decarbonizing the blood, and 
renewing its vitality; but perfect health can only be insured 
when a good system for the thorough ventilation of all living and 
working rooms, and especially of all sleeping-rooms, is in regular 
operation. An hour of exercise, even in the purest air, cannot 
compensate the human system for eight or ten hours spent in 
a vitiated atmosphere, and when perhaps the muscular strain 
must be great and the inhalation consequently very rapid. 

Never eat your food in a room full of stale, impure air. If 
you have delicate sensibilities, your appetite for food will prob¬ 
ably be spoiled before you begin; certainly your digestion will 
be impaired, your assimilation impeded, and the food when 
assimilated will not be nearly as valuable to your system if eaten 
mixed with poisonous carbonic acid gas, as it would be if diluted 
with life-giving oxygen. As a condition of health, the odors of 
the kitchen should never pervade the dining-room. This is one 
reason why picnic parties are so invigorating: the food, however 
simple, is assimilated with the life-producing oxygen of pure air. 

A sleeping apartment should always be so constructed that the 
bed may be placed out of the line of any direct current of air flow¬ 
ing between the door and window, or between the door and the 
chimney. Unfortunately, bedrooms are very frequently, one 
might almost say generally, constructed so that no other place 
can be found for the bedstead except right in the line of a strong 
draught. This is a common cause of the very frequent attacks 
of influenza, catarrh and bronchitis to which people are subject 
who live in cold and changeful climates. If people could be 
persuaded to remember when they are asleep to keep their lips 
closed, and breathe only through the nostrils, the disastrous 


398 


IMPORTANCE OP BREATHING PURE AIR. 


effects of a draught right across the bed would not be so great or 
so frequent; but every watcher by the bedside of the weary sleeper 
knows only too well that most people will persist in shutting 
their eyes and opening their mouths, to see what God will send 
them. When the sleeper draws in the cold air through opened 
lips and sings through his nose, the chill of the night air is apt 
to set up an inflammatory action of the mucous membrane, and 
hence the bronchitis, etc., etc. The air drawn in through the 
nose would have a little of the chill taken off before it reached 
the lungs. 

Keep your bedroom well ventilated. You may thus enjoy a 
pure, sweet, refreshing slumber, and awake without the head¬ 
ache and nausea, which to nervous and delicate people is the 
general result of sleeping in an atmosphere highly charged with 
■carbonic acid gas. It is of great importance to the preservation 
of health that we should avoid all public buildings, such as 
churches, theaters, etc., which are badly ventilated or over¬ 
crowded. Many public assemblies suffer severely from these 
causes. The only safe rule to observe is this: that if the 
atmosphere of any public building be such as to create a sense 
of drowsiness or oppressed breathing, it is quite time to quit the 
place. Remember, too, that sunlight is the quintessence of joy¬ 
ous vigor. • Let all the sunlight you possibly can into every room 
and department of your dwelling, and carefully avoid every 
place in which the atmosphere is dull, dark and dingy. Every 
living-room and sleeping-room, every clothes-closet, linen-press, 
chest of drawers, bath-room, etc., should be opened to a sun¬ 
bath as often as possible, that every particle of foul atmosphere 
may be cleansed and purified. 

No positive rules can be laid down as* to a dietary scale ; the 
man engaged in severe manual labor must take a proportionate 
quantity of foods which maintain the vital heat, and which 
recuperate the wasted forces of bone and sinew ; and the brain¬ 
worker should study to feed his brain with the best and most 
easily digested food. Most people eat and drink a great deal 


NUTRITIVE VALUES OF FOOD, 


399 


too much, and an occasional fast is a wise and healthful pro¬ 
vision. 


NUTRITIVE 

VALUES OF FOOD. 

| Water. 

Albumen, etc. 

Starch, etc. 

Sugar. 

£ 

Salts. 

Total 
per cent. 

Carbonaceous 

to one nitrogenous. 

Total 
per cent. 

Nitrogenous. 

Carbonaceous, 

as starch. 

Nitrogen. 

Available car¬ 

bon. 

Bread. 

37 

8.1 

47 

4 

3.6 

1.6 

2.3 

8.1 

55.00 

6.8 

1.25 

28.21 

Wheat Flour. 

15 

10.8 

66 

3 

4.2 

2.0 

1.7 

10.8 

75.50 

7.0 

1.66 

38.57 

Barley Meal. 

15 

6.3 

69 

4 

4.9 

2.4 

2.0 

6.3 

80.30 

12.8 

0.97 

36.61 

Oatmeal. 

15 12.6:58 

4 

5.4 

5.6 

3.0 

12.6 

77.80 

6.2 

1.94 

40.44 

Rye Meal. 

15 

8.0 

69 

5 

3.7 

2.0 

1.8 

8.0 

78.20 

9.8 

1.23 

38.48 

Indian Meal. 

14 

11.1 

64 

7 

0.4 

8.1 

1.7 

11.1 

85.35 

7.7 

1.71 

43.09 

Rice. 

13 

6.3 

79 

1 

0.4 

0.7 

0.5 

6.3 

81.25 

12.9 

0.97 

39.03 

Peas. 

15 

23.0 

55 

4 

2.0 

2.1 

2.5 

23.0 

62.65 

2.7 

3.54 

38.55 

A rrnwrnnt, 

18 


82 

0 





82.00 



36.44 

Potatoes. 

75 

2.1 

18 

8 

3.2 

0.2 

0Y 

2A 

22.50 

10.7 

0.31 

10.98 

Carrots. 

83 

1.3 

8 

4 

6.1 

0.2 

1.0 

1.3 

15.00 

11.5 

0.20 

7.28 

Turnips. 

91 

1.2 

5 

1 

2.1 

.... 

0.6 

1.2 

7.20 

6.0 

0.19 

3.76 

Parsnips. 

82 

1.1 

9 

6 

5.8 

0.5 

1.0 

1.1 

16.65 

15.1 

0.17 

7.91 

Sugar. 

5 

... 

. , 


95.0 

, . . . 

. • • 

.... 

95.00 

. . . 

... 

42.22 

Treacle . 

23 

. • • . 

. . 


77.0 

.... 

. • . 

.... 

77.00 



34.22 

New Milk. 

86 

4.1 



5.2 

3.9 

0.8 

4.1 

14.95 

3.6 

0.63 

8.55 

Cream. 

66 

2.7 

. . 


2.8 

26.7 

1.8 

2.7 

69.55 

25.7 

0.42 

32.17 

Skim-milk. 

88 

4.0 

. . 


5.4 

1.8 

0.8 

4.0 

9.90 

2.5 

0.62 

6.26 

Butter-milk. 

88 

4.1 

, # 


6.4 

0.7 

0.8 

4.1 

8.15 

2.0 

0.63 

5.53 

Cheddar Cheese- 

36 

28.4 

. . 


• . . . 

31.1 

4.5 

28.4 

77.75 

2.7 

4.37 

47.77 

Skim Cheese. 

44 

44.8 

. . 


.... 

6.3 

4.9 

44.8 

15.75 

0.3 

6.90 

27.82 

Lean Beef. 

72 

19.3 

, , 


.... 

3.6 

5.1 

19.3 

9.00 

0.5 

2.97 

12.98 

Fat Beef. 

51 

14.8 



.... 

29.8 

4.4 

14.8 

74.50 

5.0 

2.28 

39.99 

Lean Mutton....... 

72 

18.3 



.... 

4.9 

4.8 

18.3 

12.25 

•0.7 

2.82 

13.95 

Fat Mutton. 

53 

12.4 

. 


.... 

31.1 

3.5 

12.4 

17.75 

6.3 

1.91 

40.33 

Veal... 

63 

16.5 



• • • • 

15.8 

4.7 

16.5 

39.50 

2.4 

2.54 

25.22 

Fat Pork. 

39 

9.8 



. . . . 

48.9 

2.3 

9.8 

122.25 

12.5 

1.51 

58.89 

Green Bacon. 

24 

7.1 



• • • • 

66.8 

2.1 

7.1 

167.00 

23.5 

1.09 

77.52 

Dried Bacon. 

15 

8.8 

. 


.... 

73.3 

2.9 

8.8 

183.25 

20.8 

1.36 

85.53 

Ox Liver. ... 

74 

18.9 



.... 

4.1 

3.0 

18.9 

10.25 

0.6 

2.91 

13.34 

Tripe . 

68 

13.2 




16.4 

2.4 

13.2 

41.00 

3.1 

2.04 

24.36 

Poultry. 

74 

21.0 



.... 

3.8 

1.2 

21.0 

9.50 

0.4 

3.23 

13.99 

White-fish. 

78 

18.1 



. . . . 

2.9 

1.0 

18.1 

7.25 

0.4 

2.79 

11.64 

Eels . 

75 

9.9 




13.8 

1.3 

9.9 

34.50 

3.5 

1.52 

19.93 

Salmon. 

77 

16.1 



. . . . 

5.5 

1.4 

16.1 

13.75 

0.8 

2.48 

13.60 

Entire Egg. 

74 

14.0 

, m 


.... 

10.5 

1.5 

14.0 

26.25 

1.9 

2.16 

18.18 

no 

T\7hi tp nf T? nr nr 

78 

20.4 





1.6 

20.4 



3.14 

9.49 

Yolk of Egg. 

52 

16.0 




30.7 

1.3 

16.0 

76.7T, 

4.8 

2.46 

41.55 

Butter and Fats... 

15 




• •• • 

83.0 

2.0 

.... 

207.50 



92.22 







































































400 


WHAT TO DRINK. 


Pure water is the prime necessity of the human body. 
Human life can be sustained for many days without the use of 
any solid food constituents. The history of Dr. Tanner's fast of 
forty days, and of others who have attempted long fasts, is now 
sufficiently familiar to the reading public; but no one can live 
without water. The highest medical authorities have determined 
that human life cannot be sustained without water for a longer 
period than five days under the most favorable circumstances. 
The absolute necessity of water to the human economy is seen 
in the fact that the human body contains in its structure about 
fifty-eight and one-half per cent of free water, and that a large 
additional amount of the chemical elements of water in its physi¬ 
ological structure raises the total to about seventy-two per cent 
of its weight. A healthy average man requires about six pints 
of water per diem, and in hot weather or when subject to such 
vigorous physical exercise as will produce free perspiration, a 
much larger quantity. It is desirable that a large proportion of 
this liquid should be absorbed in its natural combination with 
solid food, and this end would be attained if we used a greater 
quantity of fruit and vegetables as part of our daily diet. The 
habit of washing down the solids with frequent drinks is a very 
injurious one, and many persons who.have been severe sufferers 
with bilious headaches, which completely prostrated them for 
days together, have found a perfect cure in the simple expedient 
of never drinking any liquid at the same time that they partook 
a meal of solid food. The reason of this is obvious: the saliva, 
gastric juices, and pancreatic secretions are so weakened by 
excessive dilution that they are incapable of digesting and assim¬ 
ilating the solid food which floats in a sea of liquid, and the bile 
not finding its natural outlet is forced back and retained in the 
blood. 

But whether in natural combinations with the solid ingre¬ 
dients of nutriment, or separately as drinks, a sufficient quan¬ 
tity of water must be taken in to supply the demands of the sys¬ 
tem for the cleansing of the pores of the skin and other excre- 


IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL CLEANLINESS 


401 


tory ducts. The solvent power of water, which renders its pres¬ 
ence in the animal economy of the human system so essential 
to the due performance of its life-sustaining functions, is at the 
same time one of the chief sources of peril to our life and health. 
Water by its power of absorbing and dissolving particles of mattei 
is extremely liable to be fouled with impure and poisonous germs. 
These germs held in solution in the water and imbibed with the 
water into the human system, become a frequent source of diar¬ 
rhoea, diphtheria, dysentery, cholera morbus, typhoid fever, etc. 
Hence it is a matter of the greatest importance that the drink¬ 
ing-water provided for the consumption and use of human 
beings and other animals should be of the highest degree of 
purity. Herein lies the most perplexing problem with which 
sanitary engineers have to cope to provide a sufficient supply of 
pure, clean, wholesome water for man and beast. 

IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL CLEANLINESS. 

Personal cleanliness is an essential condition both to vigorous 
physical life and to a healthy mental and spiritual life; that, in 
fact, it is a condition precedent both to life and godliness, is an 
unquestionable axiom of truth. The daily cleansing of the 
human body is a duty we all owe both to Ourselves and to society. 
There is no surer means to the enjoyment of sound health, sweet 
sleep and a peaceful mind. Where water is cheap and abund¬ 
ant a daily bath is eminently desirable, especially for persons 
who carry weight and perspire freely. For persons of delicate 
health and a very sensitive skin, which they think exposes them 
to the risk of taking severe cold after bathing, the ancient Jew¬ 
ish method of anointing the body with oil after the bath may be 
followed with great advantage. If from any cause the daily 
bath is impracticable, or is thought to be impracticable, a good 
substitute may be found in what is known in hydropathic insti¬ 
tutions as “ the towel wash.” 

THE IMPORTANCE OF SLEEP. 

A sufficient amount of sweet, refreshing sleep is the great 
26 


m 


THE IMPORTANCE OF SLEEP. 


restorative for all the organs of the body, and all the faculties of 
the mind. A healthy man or woman needs at least eight hours' 
deep to preserve all the human faculties in full health and vigor, 
and the hour of rising should not be later than 6 a.m. in winter, 
and 5 a.m. in summer. A person of feeble constitution or 4 in 
poor health should take at least ten hours' sleep and rise at the 
same hours. Children need at least twelve hours' sound sleep 
for the development of their physical and mental organ¬ 
ization, and the maintenance of their vital forces ; and 
the same provision should be made for their rising early 
and breathing the pure morning air. Sleep to be sweet 
and refreshing must be honestly earned by labor and exer¬ 
cise. Sleep induced by narcotics is of little or no value as a 
renovator. Sleeplessness in a genuine worker may often be 
relieved by a change of thought and exercise: the literary worker 
whose life is sedentary may woo and win sweet sleep by a vigor¬ 
ous walk; the merchant to relieve the strain of business cares 
may read some entrancing book to completely divert his thought 
and soothe to rest; the public speaker, whose brain is overcharged 
and whose nervous system is highly excited, may secure sound 
sleep by soaking his feet in cold water for ten minutes and 
drawing off the blood from the brain; but in whatever way it 
may be induced the sleep of the man who honestly works with 
bone and sinew, or with brain and nerve, will surely be sounder 
and sweeter than that of the vagrant and listless. Idleness* 
luxurious, self-indulgent feeding, and alcoholic excitation, are the 
most inveterate foes of that great renovator of the human frame 
and force. The most refreshing and renovating sleep is that 
which is secured before midnight. The old axiom that “ one hour 
before twelve o'clock is worth two hours after," is certainly con¬ 
firmed by experience ; though in our youthful days we are little 
disposed to take heed to the maternal advice of our grand¬ 
mothers, a wider knowledge teaches us the wisdom of many of 
their tender cautions. We can all soon learn to see that “ 'tis the 
early hours' sleep that gives the rose-blush to the maiden’s cheek." 


PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH A UNIT. 403 

The ill-health and short life-tenure of night-workers is noto¬ 
rious, and their lives are “ loaded " as bad by all life insurance 
companies. In fact, night-workers, whether in the printing- 
office, the drug-store, the mine or the factory, have developed a 
new class of diseases of the brain and.heart. All ancient nations 
teach maxims which proclaim the untold value of the early 
hours of sleep ; all eastern nations practice these maxims to the 
full extent, and need no lunatic asylums; and all scientific and 
physiological investigation of modern times by the most eminent 
men tends to confirm the wisdom of the old saw: 

“Early to bed and early to rise, 

Is the way to be healthy, wealthy and wise.” 

PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH A UNIT. 

The last proposition upon which we briefly touch in this 
exposition of the laws of hygienics as a science is this: 

That the continued neglect of any one of these sanitary and 
physiological laws of health and life may more than counter¬ 
balance all the care and expense we may incur in other directions 
for the preservation of life and health. 

Our human personality is a unit,—a unity of living forces so 
fearfully and wonderfully made, and adjusted with such fine 
delicacy and perfect precision, that if one member suffers in the 
least degree all the members certainly suffer in that same degree. 
Hence the laws which govern human health, etc., are a perfect 
unit. Whoever offends in one point may suffer the consequence 
of the violation of all. A man may live in the open air, but 
if he eats impure food and imbibes poison for drink he may die 
of cholera or pneumonia ; he may be cleanly in person, but if he 
gets no healthy sleep his cleanliness will not insure physical 
health and mental vigor. One moment’s inhalation of “foul- 
damp” will kill him as certainly as the violation of the whole 
code. The great object of all sanitary reformers is, and must be, 
to induce the members of society individually to understand 
and feel the value of this simple code of laws in its unity and 


404 


DIGESTION - OF FOODS, 


relation, by the observances of which every one may do for him¬ 
self or herself all that can be done by any one person to promote 
the perfect sanitation of the whole community. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR DIGESTION - AMD ASSIMILATION - OF VARIOUS 

FOODS. 


HRS. MIN. 


Rice, boiled. 1:00 

Eggs, whipped raw.1:30 

Trout, fresh, fried. 1:30 

Barley soup. 1:30 

Sweet, ripe apples, raw.1:30 

Venison steak, broiled.,1:45 

Boiled sago.1:45 

Boiled tapioca. 2:00 

“ barley.2:00 

“ milk.2:00 

Sour apples, raw.2:00 

Cabbage with vinegar.2:00 

Milk, raw.2:15 

Eggs, roasted.2:15 

Turkey “ .:.2:30 

Goose, “ .2:30 

Sponge cake.2:30 

Hash.2:30 

Beans, boiled.2:30 

Parsnips, boiled.2:30 

Potatoes, baked.2:30 

Cabbage, raw.2:30 

Custard, baked.2:45 

Oysters, fresh, raw .2:55 

Eggs, fresh, soft boiled.3:00 

Beefsteak, broiled.3:00 

Mutton, fresh, boiled.3:00 

Bean soup, boiled.3:00 

Chicken soup.3:00 


HRS. MIN. 


Apple dumpling, boiled.3:00 

Oysters, roasted.3:15 

Salt pork, broiled.3:15 

Mutton, roasted.3:15 

Bread, corn.3:15 

Carrot, boiled. 3:15 

Sausage, broiled.3:20 

Oysters, stewed.3:30 

Butter, melted.3:30 

Cheese, old.3:30 

Oyster soup.3:30 

Wheaten bread..3:30 

Turnips, boiled.3:30 

Potatoes, “ . 3:30 

Eggs, hard boiled.3:30 

Eggs, fried.3:30 

Green corn and beans,boiled.3:45 

Beets, boiled. 3:45 

Salt salmon, boiled.4:00 

Beef, fried.4:00 

Veal, broiled.4:00 

Boiled fowls.4:00 

Salt beef, boiled.4:15 

Salt pork, fried.4:15 

Salt pork, boiled.4:30 

Veal, fried.4:30 

Cabbage, boiled.4:30 

Pork, roasted. 5:15 

Beef suet, boiled..5:30 


ATMOSPHERIC CAPACITY OF GREAT BUILDINGS. 

Estimating each person to require 19.9 sq. in., the seating 
capacity of some of the great buildings of the world is as follows. 





























































ATMOSPHERIC CAPACITY OF GREAT BUILDINGS. 405 


Where steam heat or stove heat is used a much greater area is 
required, because of the dessicated condition of the air. The use 
of electric light increases the breathing area; gas diminishes it. 


CHURCHES. NO. OF PERSONS. 

St. Peter’s, Rome..54,000 

Milan Cathedral.37,000 

St. Paul’s, Rome.82,000 

St. Paul’s, London.25,600 

St. Petronis, Bologna.24,400 

Florence Cathedral.24,300 

Antwerp Cathedral.24,000 

St. Sophia’s, Constantinople..23,000 

St. John’s, Lateran.22,900 

Notre Dame, Paris.21,000 

Pisa Cathedral.13,000 

St. Steven’s, Vienna.12,400 

St. Dominic’s, Bologna..... .12,000 

St. Peter’s, Bologna..11,400 

Vienna Cathedral.11,000 

St. Mark’s, Vienna.7,500 

OPERA HOUSES AND THEATERS. 

NO. OF PERSONS. 

Barnum’s Hippodrome, N. Y. .8,433 

Stadt Theater, New York.3,000 

Academy of Music, Philadel’a.2,865 

Carlo Felice, Genoa.2,560 

Academy of Music, Brooklyn.2,500 

Opera House, Munich.2,367 

Alexander, St. Petersburg-2,332 

San Carlos, Naples.2,240 


OPERA HOUSES AND THEATERS. 

NO. OF PERSONS. 


Columbia Theater, Chicago.. .2,300 

Imperial, St. Petersburg.2,160 

La Scala, Milan.2,113 

Academy of Paris.2,092 

Covent Garden, London.2,684 

Academy of Music, New York.2,526 

Boston Theater.2,972 

Music Hall, Boston. 2,585 

Grand Opera Hall, N. Orleans. .2,052 
St. Charles Theater, “ ..2,178 

Grand Opera House, N. Y_1,883 

Booth’s Theater, N. Y.1,807 

Opera House, Detroit.1,790 

McVicker’sTheater, Chicago. .1,786 
Grand Opera House, “ ..1,786 

Ford’s Opera H’se, Baltimore..2,001 


N ational Theater, W ashington .1,500 
DeBar’s Opera H’se, St. Louis. 1,696 
California Th’ter, San Fr’cisco. 1,652 
Euclid Avenue Opera House, 


Cleveland.1,650 

Berlin Opera House.1,636 

Albany Opera House.1,404 

Hooley’s Theater, Chicago... .1,373 
Coulter Opera H’se, Aurora,Ill .1,004 
Montreal Opera House.928 


































CHAPTEE XXXII. 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES AND SIMPLE 
SURGERY. 


POPULAE treatise designed for the education and 
help of the multitude in their home life, can never right¬ 
ly claim to enable the reader to dispense with the inval¬ 
uable aids to be derived from experts in the many 
and various branches of human skill and learning. 
While this is true of every department of science and 
art, it is most emphatically and preeminently true of 
medical science and the arts of healing. The sug¬ 
gestions and prescriptions contained in the following 
pages are not designed to exclude the medical practi¬ 
tioner, nor even to suggest that his presence may not 
be necessary; nor are the limits on simple surgery for 
the household intended to supplant the skillful surgeon. All that 
can be done, even at the best, is to enable parents and others to 
meet the thousand and one emergencies which arise in daily life 
with a calm confidence and ready wit, when it may not be prac¬ 
ticable to secure the services of medical or surgical practitioners. 
The method that seems most useful for the ordinary purposes of 
practical life will require a few hints on the following subjects: 

The nurture and treatment of children; practical house¬ 
hold remedies for adults; simple surgery for injuries arising 
from accidents, etc.; treatment to be adopted for the restoration of 
persons whose lives are endangered by drowning or poisons. 

THE NURTURE AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. 

The most essential condition for the life and health of a child 
is, that, during the first period of its existence it should be nour- 

406 












TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. 


407 


ished by human milk, i. e . either that of its mother, or of a 
thoroughly sound, healthy wet-nurse. No other aliment can 
ever fully supply the wants of the human babe. Where the con¬ 
stitution of both parents is sound, and the laws of hygienics are 
constantly observed, the child may have a fair prospect of escap¬ 
ing many of the perils to life which so fearfully increase the list 
of infant mortality, if it be nourished by its mother or a suitable 
substitute. The length of time to which the nourishment of 
the human breast should be continued for the child to attain a 
vigorous constitution must depend upon a variety of circum¬ 
stances, principally the health of the mother and the constitu¬ 
tional tendency of the child, i. e. whether it be of a weakly or 
strong habit. No absolute rule can be stated, and the customs 
of different nations reveal a great diversity of opinion among the 
mothers themselves as to this point. In some Eastern nations it 
is by no means uncommon for the mother to suckle her babe 
until another takes its place, or even until it is eighteen months 
or more of age, and the children thus reared are generally 
remarkably healthy and vigorous. All nature teaches that 
where progeny derives nutriment from the mother* the .modern 
practice prevalent in European and the Anglo-Saxon races of 
weaning off the babe from the breast and putting it upon the 
feeding-bottle as early as possible ought to be severely repro¬ 
bated. If the mother is healthy and has a sufficient supply of 
milk, such a custom can only be productive of increased care, 
anxiety and expense to the parents, and add greatly to the prob¬ 
able sufferings of the child and to the risks to which its life is 
subject. 

A word of caution is in these days absolutely necessary to 
parents who really value the lives of their children as to the use 
of “soothing syrups ” and quack medicines so largely advertised 
for administration to children. Many of them owe any efficacy 
they may seem to possess to the presence of narcotics, the use of 
which, either by the mother for the relief of her own feelings, 
or for administration to the babe to still its murmurs and soothe 


408 


TREATMENT CMF CHILDREN. 


it to unnatural sleep, is almost certain to bring about a future 
inheritance of woe. When other food than its mother’s milk 
becomes necessary for the child before it has cut its teeth, it 
ought to be entirely of a liquid character. „ When the milk of a 
cow is used, great care should be exercised if possible to insure 
that the milk is drawn from an animal that is in perfect health, 
and if she is associated with a herd, the whole herd should be 
thoroughly free from all eruptive and other diseases. Measles, 
scarlatina, scarlet fever and even typhoid fever are frequently 
communicated from the contagion of cow’s milk, and it has been 
abundantly proved that the infant mortality arising from the 
use of impure milk is very heavy. Cow’s milk given to an infant 
should always, if possible, be drawn from the same cow, and 
should be diluted with scalding water as long as its use is 
continued. Various preparations of “condensed milk,” and 
“artificial human milk,” are in the market, and some of these 
are doubtless valuable aids in the rearing of children when it is 
impossible to obtain the genuine article. 

In prepared food for babes, flour or meal should not be used, 
as it is likely to produce viscid humors instead of a wholesome 
nutritious chyle; biscuits or stale bread boiled in a mixture of 
equal proportions of pure milk and pure water may be used with 
advantage. Children who are brought up by hand, i.e. who 
are not nourished by the mother or a wet-nurse, require an occa¬ 
sional change of diet;—for this purpose thin oatmeal gruel sup¬ 
plies a suitable and wholesome diet in alternation with milk pre¬ 
pared as directed. When a babe is six months old weak veal 
or chicken broth may be given, and subsequently as the consti¬ 
tution of the child is able to bear them, such cooked vegetables 
as are not of a very flatulent nature, i. e. carrots, parsnips, 
endive, etc., and such stewed fruits as apples, pears, plums, etc. 
Great care should be exercised that the digestive system of the 
child is not at any period overladen and overtaxed with food too 
rich and heavy for assimilation, i. e. thin bread with a thick 
coat of butter and a thicker coat of rich jam. Some Eastern 


TREATMENT OF CHILDREN. 


409 


nations make no use whatever of cow’s milk or butter either for 
themselves or their children; the Chinese, for instance, use 
almost wholly a vegetable diet. They are very prolific, and their 
babes are not as subject to convulsions in teething, etc., as are the 
children of Western nations. The two main principles to be 
observed in the feeding of children are: 

That the food should be of the most simple and wholesoihe 
kind. 

That the food should be given only at regular intervals of 
time to allow the stomach a period of rest. The child that is 
always eating will seldom digest anything well. 

When an infant has been weaned and has cut the necessary 
teeth, small quantities of meat may be given with a general vege¬ 
table diet; but smoked and salted meats (especially pork), entrees, 
cheese, pastry, confectionery and all heavy dishes made of boiled 
or baked flour should-be rigorously excluded from its diet. Pota¬ 
toes, either mashed or in broth, may be given in small quantities, 
but always without butter. The periods of feeding must depend 
partly upon the age and health of the child. A young child 
requires aliment frequently because of its rapid exhaustion of 
vital force; a weak child must be often nourished because its 
organs are incapable of assimilating much food. The following 
order has been proved to be conducive to health: 

At 6 a.m. a sufficient supply of lukewarm milk with well- 
baked stale bread. 

At 9 a.m. a liberal quantity of stale broad with fruit, pre¬ 
serves, or a little butter. 

At 12 m. a mixed diet of vegetables, enough to satisfy the 
hunger. 

At 4 p.m. bread with fresh fruit, or in winter, jam or pre¬ 
served fruits. 

At 7 p.m., a light supper of bread and milk, fruit or vegeta¬ 
ble soup, but no heavy or flatulent food of any kind, as this will 
spoil its healthy sleep. 

Whole meal or wheaten bread should always be used for chil- 


410 


PRESCRIPTION'S FOR CHILDREN. 


dren in every stage of their growth, as they cannot derive the 
necessary carbonaceous elements for building up a sound set of 
teeth and bones from the starchy substance known as “fine white 
bread” Bread should be well baked and not be used for chil¬ 
dren until it is moderately stale. The saliva and gastric juices 
of children must not be diluted with large quantities of liquid 
of any hind, or the digestive functions will certainly suffer; and 
no alcoholic drinks should be given under any circumstances. 
A fruit and vegetable diet will supply all the moisture necessary 
to quench a natural thirst. The idea that many mothers cher¬ 
ish, that as often as a child cries it must be quieted with food or 
drink, is productive of much injury to its health. The sleep of a 
child must be regulated by its age and health. Infants cannot 
sleep too long, as healthy sleep promotes circulation and facili¬ 
tates the assimilation of food. The recumbent posture is the 
most favorable to growth and development. Everything that 
can be done to promote a full night’s sleep should be done; such 
sleep is more natural and healthy than the brief snatches of sleep 
which may be necessary during the day. 

PRESCRIPTIONS FOR CHILDREN. 

Great care is necessary in giving medicines to children that 
they are not overdosed. Convulsions. The old-fashioned method 
of giving an infant threatened with convulsions a hot bath (as 
hot as it can be borne), freely rubbing and washing its limbs, and 
swathing it in flannels until a free perspiration is induced, has 
saved many a child’s life. This method has the advantage of 
being always and quickly available. Convulsions are very fre¬ 
quently, perhaps generally, brought on by overfeeding or feeding 
with heavy, rich, unsuitable food, and “prevention is better than 
cure.” The following remarkable case in which chloroform was 
administered by a surgeon to an infant in convulsions and with 
successful results may be read with interest; it must be remem¬ 
bered, however, that only a skillful practitioner can determine in 
any case, either of an infant or adult, whether the administration 
of chloroform may or may not be fatal to life: Numerous rome- 


PRESCRIPTIONS FOR CHILDREN. 


411 


dies having been already used without effect, the administration 
of chloroform was determined on at 9 p.m., when the child was 
rapidly sinking. Half a drachm of. chloroform was dropped in a 
thin muslin handkerchief, which was then held about an inch 
from the child's face, and in about two minutes the convulsions 
ceased and the child fell asleep. The influence of the anaes¬ 
thetic was then sufficiently relaxed to allow nourishment to be 
given. This treatment was continued from Friday 9 p.m. to Mon¬ 
day 9 a.m; the child's life was saved and no injurious after-effects 
were revealed. 

Hooping Cough. —Dissolve one scruple of salt of tartar in one 
quarter pint of water; add ten grains of cochineal, and sweeten 
with sugar. Give to an infant a fourth part of a tablespoonful 
four times a day; give to a two-year-old half a spoonful as often, 
and to a four-year-old and over one full tablespoonful at same 
intervals. 

Roche's Embrocation for Hooping Cough is prepared and used 
as follows: Oil of olives, two ounces; oil of amber, one ounce; 
oil of cloves, one drachm. Mix freely and rub the embrocation 
on the chest and throat at bed-time. 

Scurf on the Scalp of Infants.—Take lard (fresh) two ounces; 
diluted sulphuric acid, two drachms; rub them well together and 
anoint the scalp once or twice a day. 

Scurf on the Scalp— Put a lump of fresh quicklime, about 
the size of a walnut, intok one pint of pure spring-water; let it 
stand about twelve hours, then pour off the clear lime-water from 
the sediment; add to the water a quarter of a pint of pure white 
vinegar and wash the scalp with the mixture. This is a per¬ 
fectly harmless and very effectual remedy. 

Ringwomn. —For infants, children or adults. The head 
should be washed twice a day with soft-soap and warm soft-water; 
when the hair is dry the ring should be rubbed with a linen rag 
dipped in gas tar ammonia. A gentle aperient, such as sulphur 
and treacle for children or Epsom salts for adults, must be taken 
every morning. Great care must be used that all brushes and 




412 


PRESCRIPTIONS FOR CHILDREN. 


combs used are thoroughly cleansed every day. The ammonia 
must be tightly corked and kept in a dark place, as it is very 
volatile. 

Ringworm on the face , neck, or body may be effectually 
treated without any disfigurement by the use of citric ointment, 
or as it is sometimes called citrine.” The citric ointment - 
must be well rubbed into and around the ring with the forefin¬ 
ger. Be careful to thoroughly wash the finger and hand used 
before touching any other part of the body with it, or the erup¬ 
tion may be communicated. Never use a towel or brush that 
has been used by a person, or for a child having ringworms. 

Worms in the stomach, or bowels. Fresh quicklime should 
be dissolved in clean cold water; the mixture must stand until 
the water is quite clear, when the lime-water may be drawn off 
and bottled. A wine-glassful given every morning is a simple 
but invaluable spring medicine for children and adults, especially 
where there is any indication or suspicion of worms. Also for 
rough skin, tetters, etc. 

Teething of infants often occasions them a great deal of need¬ 
less suffering. The gums should be carefully examined and felt 
with the forefinger of the right hand. If there is any indication 
of a tooth trying to cut its way through and the gum does not 
yield, the gums should be lanced without any delay, and the 
lancing be repeated as often as may be necessary to give the babe 
perfect relief from suffering. Neglected teething often induces 
convulsions. Croup, mumps, diphtheria and other serious infan¬ 
tile diseases need an experienced nurse and medical care. 

PRACTICAL HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES FOR ADULTS. 

If due caution be observed in relation to the laws of health as 
laid down in “ The Science of Hygienics” a perfect immunity 
may be secured from many of the most serious and fatal diseases, 
such as rheumatic fever, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery, 
as well as from the numerous ailments which are the plague and 
sorrow of so many human lives. As many, however, fail to realize 



HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


413 


the necessary conditions of health, it is expedient to present some 
simple practical prescriptions the efficacy of which has been 
established by long experience. 

Weak and Sore Eyes .—Take of sulphate of zinc, three grains; 
of tincture of opium, ten drops; of pure water, two ounces. 
Mix well and bathe the eyes with the mixture three or four 
times a day. 

Toothache .—Two or three drops of essential oil of cloves should 
be put upon a small piece of lint or cotton wool, and placed in 
the hollow of the tooth. This remedy does not injure the gums 
nor destroy the tooth, and in the case of exposed nerves is gener¬ 
ally very effective in removing pain. In severe toothache arising 
from exposed or diseased nerves in hollow teeth, it is sometimes 
necessary for the relief of the sufferer—and when the drawing of 
the teeth is impracticable or undesirable—to entirely destroy the 
vitality of the nerve. Take a small piece of lint, dip it in crea- 
sote, dust over this a fine coating of powdered arsenic, moisten 
the whole with alcohol, and press the lint firmly up the hollow 
teeth to the nerve; keep the mouth closed, breathing only through 
the nostrils; after a little while that nerve will never give any fur¬ 
ther trouble. 

Cutaneous Eruptions. — Ipecacuanha wine, four drachms; 
flowers of sulphur, two drachms; tincture of cardamoms, one 
ounce; mix well and take one teaspoonful of the mixture three 
times a day in a wine-glassful of water. This mixture is effective 
for many eruptions of the skin. 

Earache and Deafness. — These painful disorders may arise 
from a general disturbance of vital forces, from an undue accu¬ 
mulation of wax in the ear, or from some disease of the organs of 
the ear. In the first case the general health must be restored; 
in the second case some solvent, such as warm olive oil or glycer¬ 
ine dropped in the ear, may afford relief; in the third case, no 
one but a competent aurist can determine the nature or extent 
of the mischief, and in either case the human ear is so delicate 
and complicated a structure that it is far safer and better, when- 


414 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


ever practicable, to consult a skilled physician or surgeon. It is 
not expedient to syringe the ears with water, as was formerly a 
common practice, without a definite knowledge of the causes 
that create earache and deafness. 

Headache .— Dr. Clark’s prescription for Nervous Headache is 
as follows: take of socotrine aloes and powdered rhubarb, one 
drachm each; compound powder of cinnamon, one scruple; hard 
soap, half a drachm, and mix with syrup sufficient to form a 
mass; divide into fifty pills and take two at a time as often as 
may be necessary. Headache in general arises from such a va¬ 
riety of causes that no remedy can be advised until the specific 
cause is determined. Sedentary habits and excessive brainwork 
are a prolific source of this disorder, and the best remedy will be 
found in taking plenty of exercise in the pure air and sunlight 
and a free use of bathing in cold or tepid water. Excessive eat¬ 
ing and alcoholic drinks are the most frequent cause of this 
complaint. Abstinence and mild purgatives are in general the 
most efficient remedy. Sympathetic headaches arising from 
disease of some of the vital organs can only be dealt with by the 
medical practitioner. 

Heartburn is occasioned by acidity of the stomach or its oppo¬ 
site, an alkaline condition of the gastric juices. Small doses of 
carbonate of soda taken immediately before or after meals will 
remove heartburn arising from acidity; if this does not give relief 
squeeze the juice of a lemon into a half glass of water and 
drink it. 

Neuralgia .— A distressing nerve pain generally produced by 
exhaustion or exposure. It may reveal itself in any of the limbs, 
in various parts of the body, or in the vicinity of some vital 
organ, such as neuralgia of the heart, stomach, etc. Most fre¬ 
quently the head and face are the objects of the attack, and it is * 
the result of a severe cold; occasionally it is due to malaria 
and becomes periodic. Acute attacks require sulphate of qui¬ 
nine, five grains every four or five hours at first, the doses to be 
gradually reduced in quantity and frequency. The general 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


415 


treatment demands the building up of the system by nutritious 
diet and plenty of refreshing sleep. Neuralgia affecting vital 
organs, such as the heart, necessitate the immediate advice of a 
physician. 

Sore Throat . — Patients subject to sore throat may find 
speedy relief in the early stages from the following simple, inex¬ 
pensive, old-fashioned remedy: Take twenty or thirty leaves of 
common sage, infuse it in boiling water for an hour; add enough 
vinegar to make it moderately acid, and sweeten it with honey. 
Use the infusion as a gargle three or four times a day; it is 
pleasant to the taste. The combined astringent and emollient 
properties generally produce the desired effects, and the infusion 
may be swallowed without fear. Sore throat arising from excess¬ 
ive strain of the vocal organs in public speaking, singing, etc., 
or from prolonged exposure to the vitiated atmosphere of a 
crowded audience room, may generally be relieved by the use of 
some of those bronchial lozenges prepared as a specific, some of 
which such as Brown’s Bronchial Troches are invaluable for this 
purpose. Sore throat which does not yield to simple remedies 
should be diagnosed by a physician, as it may be indicative of 
diphtheria, bronchitis or other serious forms of disease of the 
respiratory organs. 

Asthma .—This painful affection may ofttimes be relieved by 
the following simple remedy: Mix two ounces of pure honey 
with one ounce of castor oil, and take a teaspoonful every night 
and morning. 

Colds and Coughs. — A valuable mixture for quick relief is 
made as follows: Solution of acetate of ammonia, two ounces; 
ipecacuanha wine, two drachms; antimony wine, two drachms; 
solution of muriate of morphine, half a drachm; treacle, four 
drachms; mix well and add half a pint of water. Take two 
tablespoonfuls three or four times a day. Severe cold and 
cough intensified by a disordered system requires additional 
treatment. Take of compound ipecacuanha powder, half a 


410 


HOUSEHOLD 11EMEDIES. 


drachm; fresh dried squills, ten grains; sulphate of quinine, six 
grains; treacle in sufficient quantity to make a mass. Divide 
into twelve pills and take one every morning and evening. 

Dyspepsia or Indigestion. — These disorders are generally 
induced by sedentary habits, breathing foul air, eating excessive 
quantities of food, eating indigestible, unwholesome food, drink¬ 
ing alcoholic drinks, or excessive quantities of liquids of any 
kinds; the best and only permanent cure must be effected by 
dietary treatment and hygienics; a simple diet of fruit and vege¬ 
tables and as little liquid as possible, and plenty of exercise in 
the fresh air. When medicine is required the following pre¬ 
scription may be useful: Infusion of calumba, six ounces; car¬ 
bonate of potash, one drachm; compound tincture of gentian, 
three drachms. Mix well and take two or three tablespoonfuls 
every day. 

Fainting Fits. — A feeble or imperfect action of the heart 
and lungs often produces a sudden unconsciousness. Persons of 
weak organic development are very subject to these fainting fits 
when exposed to the foul atmosphere of heated and crowded 
rooms. They may be known from other fits by the absence of 
convulsions, low and feeble pulse and slight respiration. Place 
the patient in a horizontal position, dash cold water in the face, 
apply camphor to the nostrils and mustard to the soles of the 
feet; this will revive the circulation. Persons predisposed to 
fainting fits should be very scrupulous about their diet and gen¬ 
eral habits; everything that can induce an even and vigorous cir¬ 
culation of the blood, free respiration in pure air, and a thor¬ 
ough digestion and assimilation of food at regular hours, must 
be done to effect a cure of this tendency. All violent emotions 
must be avoided. 

Hysteria. — A disease generally resulting from a low nervous 
tone, and occurs most frequently to those under thirty-five 
years of age. The symptoms of hysteria vary: generally great 
dejection, sudden fits of crying, alternating with loud bursts 
of unprovoked laughter, are the premonitory symptoms of a 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


417 


severe attack. These are followed by paroxysms of contortions 
of the body, loud screaming, laughing and crying, which are 
often a source of fright and much anxiety to friends. Treat¬ 
ment of patients during the attacks is limited to loosening all 
the clothing, especially the corsets, giving plenty of fresh air, 
and quickening the circulation by the free and vigorous use of 
cold water dashed upon the face, chest and arms. A strict 
course of hygiene, plenty of exercise, nutritious food, cheerful 
associations, and an occasional use of" such medicinal remedies 
as will give tone and regularity to the whole system, will do 
much to reduce the frequency and severity of the attacks. 

Epileptic Fits. — The patient is suddenly attacked by con¬ 
vulsions, accompanied by loss of consciousness, sensation and 
volition, with foaming at the mouth, protrusion of eyeballs, etc. 
Total abstinence, strict regimen and careful hygienics afford the 
only relief or possible cure. 

Bleeding at the Nose. — To arrest bleeding at the nose, take 
a small piece of lint, dip it in some mild styptic, such as alum 
water, solution of bluestone, or Friar’s balsam, or if these are 
not at hand, dip it in ice-water, and by the use of a small probe 
press the lint well up the nostrils and plug them; this will gen¬ 
erally suffice; if not, ice water snuffed well up the nostrils may 
succeed. Persons subject to bleeding of the nose of a severe 
character should always keep “Ruspini’s Styptic” at hand; it 
will be found most beneficial. If the hemorrhage is very pro¬ 
fuse the advice of a physician should be secured. 

Bleeding from the Lungs . — This is a complaint of very fre¬ 
quent occurrence in the middle latitudes of the United States. 
It may be induced by hereditary predisposition to consumption, 
by a severe cold settled upon the lungs, or by injury to the re¬ 
spiratory organs from frequent and long continued inhalation of 
foul air. Symptoms: In hemorrhage from the lungs the blood 
is coughed up by violent effort — not vomited as in bleeding 
from the stomach, etc., and the blood is of a scarlet color and 
frothy consistency. The hemorrhage closes the air passages in 
27 


418 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


the throat, and the sufferer is in.danger of choking. Treatment: 
A drop of paregoric mixed with a teaspoonful of vinegar and 
diluted with cold water makes a suitable remedy; give a tea¬ 
spoonful every half hour until relief is obtained. The patient 
should sit up in bed, and no mental or physical effort should be 
permitted. Nourishing diet should be given as often as the 
patient is able to take, and the chest should be sponged with vin¬ 
egar and water. An experienced physician should be summoned 
without delay. 

Boils . — These painful afflictions generally arise from a 
thoroughly depraved condition of the blood. They may be 
brought to a head by warm poultices of chamomile flowers; 
boiled white-lily root, or onion root, by fomentation with hot 
water, by stimulating plasters, or by a piece of fat meat sliced 
thin, put in contact with the boil for about twelve hours. As 
soon as the boil comes to a head it should be lanced. A rigor¬ 
ous course of dieting and hygienics should be at once adopted 
and maintained to purify the blood and reinvigorate the system. 
Ten grains of sulphate of quinine daily for a week may break up 
a threatened course of boils. 

Carbuncles —Generally appear at the side or back of the 
neck; they indicate general debility, and are more common to 
the old than the yioung. They are much more serious than sim¬ 
ple boils, and require ■‘'or their successful treatment the skill and 
care of the surgeon. 

Acne, Pimples, Flesn Worms. —A small red spot appears on 
the skin singly or in a group with others; it becomes yellow, and 
on being squeezed emits a white plug. These are not serious in 
themselves, but as they frequently appear on the face they are 
highly disagreeable. They are generally due to vitiated blood, 
from an over rich diet, or an indulgence in alcoholic drinks; but 
sometimes they are symptomatic of diseased liver and kidneys. 

Worms. —Three kinds of worms find their way to the human 
intestines with the food that we consume, viz: the round-worm, 
thread-worm and tape-worm. 


HOUSEHOLD KEMEDJES. 


419 


The Round- Worm — Is the most common, especially with 
children. Saccharine substances, such as fruits and sweetmeats, 
taken in excess and with a neglect of salt, are favorable to their 
growth in the human system. They occupy the smaller bowels, 
just beneath the stomach, and their presence in the intestines is 
necessarily very injurious to health. Symptoms: Feverishness, 
fickleness of appetite, headache, and the tickling of the nose, 
which so often induces children to be “ picking at the ndse.” 
If not quickly checked the worms will produce severe irritation 
of the bowels, nausea, distressing cough, insomnia and (in chil¬ 
dren) severe spasms. Treatment: An ounce of table-salt dis¬ 
solved in a glass of water drank right down will often expel 
, these worms. For children this method is scarcely practicable. 
Give a child of seven years one grain of santonine, followed by a 
half teaspoonful o£ fluid extract of spigelia. These remedies are 
more effective after a fast of twelve hours, and should be fol¬ 
lowed by a dose of eight grains of rhubarb, or a half teaspoonful 
of fluid extract of senna. For older children and adults the 
doses must be proportionately increased. 

The Thread-Worm .— Or pin-worm, finds its place in the 
lower portion of the rectum and creates an intolerable itching 
and uneasiness. Treatment: Give a strong dose of castor oil, 
magnesia, senna or rhubarb, and when purging is induced, 
inject an infusion of lime, salt, or best of all, quassia chips. 

The Tape-Worm —Finds its way to the human intestines in 
uncooked or half-cooked meat of any kind; probably in the 
chipped beef and raw ham, which is so frequently eaten. Sausage 
meats are fruitful sources of the same mischievous pests. It 
must be got rid of, at all costs, as one tape-worm will shatter the 
constitution of a strong, vigorous man and keep him in misery 
for years; it sometimes grows to an enormous length if not early 
expelled, and it then becomes exceedingly difficult to dislodge. 
The early symptoms are not always very decisive, but later on 
become intolerable. Insatiable appetite, cramps, fever, lan¬ 
guor, pains everywhere, are sure tokens. Treatment: For a 


420 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


child, half an ounce of oil of turpentine; for an adult, one ounce. 
If this is not successful in discharging the worm, a careful 
course of treatment with pumpkin seeds and cathartics, or with 
male-fern and pomegranate bark should be carried out under the 
supervision of a physician. Fasting before and after treatment 
is a necessity to a successful result. 

Piles or Hemorrhoids. — These distressing malformations of 
the lower part of the rectum frequently occasion great incon¬ 
venience and intense pain. If allowed to grow unchecked they 
will increase to an enormous size, and produce an intolerable 
irritation of the whole system. They may arise from a sedentary 
life, congestion of the liver, highly seasoned and rich foods, free 
indulgence in alcoholic drinks, and also from the abuse or 
excessive indulgence of the. sexual organs. Treatment: Total 
abstinence from alcoholic drinks, plenty of walking exercise in 
the open air, strict regimen in diet, careful regulation of the 
bowels, and such remedies as will restore the vitality of the liver 
and kidneys. Avoid riding, jolting, and all shocks to the sys¬ 
tem, and if a thorough trial of the local application of the oint¬ 
ment of stramonium does not effect a cure, submit cheerfully to 
the surgeon’s knife. 

Colic .—An intense pain in the regions of the navel and 
lower bowel, with griping and a contraction of the muscles of 
the lower abdomen. The causes of this complaint are numer¬ 
ous; sometimes it is due to poisoning, as in painter’s colic (due 
to lead poisoning), but more generally due to the drinking of 
large draughts of cold liquids on an over-heated stomach; the 
eating of unripe fruit (especially plums), or indigestible vege¬ 
tables, or to the prevalence of cold in the feet or bowels. Treat¬ 
ment : Free doses of castor oil should be given on the first symp¬ 
toms of this complaint, so that any offending substances may be 
thoroughly expelled. Any subsequent treatment must depend 
upon a copious evacuation of the intestines. 

Diarrhoea .—Generally due to sudden changes of tempera¬ 
ture; over-exhaustion; exposure to extreme heat or malarial 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


m 


atmosphere; the eating of unripe or unsound fruit and often to 
indigestible vegetables (such as cucumbers, etc.). It is common 
to all climates, but most prevalent, severe and injurious in 
warm climates or in hot seasons. It prevails in most parts of 
the United States, and produces great depression of the vital 
forces. Treatment: If the disorder be due to any irritant in 
the stomach or the bowels, mild aperients should be given until 
the irritating cause is removed; if to heat of atmosphere, undue 
exposure, or exhaustion, a simple diet with rest and sound sleep 
and quiet will restore to health; if it be due to marshy exhala¬ 
tions or bad local atmosphere, a change of climate to a pure 
bracing air is imperative for recovery. 

Cholera Morbus. —The symptoms of this destructive com¬ 
plaint are severe cramps in the bowels, vomiting and purging, 
and they most frequently appear during the night in hot weather. 
The causes are much the same as in diarrhoea, and the treat¬ 
ment must be substantially the same; i. e. expel all offending 
subtances as quickly as possible, then do your best to induce 
free perspiration and sound sleep. 

Stitch in the Side. — The cause may be slight or serious; it 
may be due to the disorders of the digestive system, or it may 
result from inflammation of the pleura. If the former, attend 
to the general health; if the latter, stop all exercise that provokes 
the pain, and at once put yourself under medical treatment. 

Jaundice . — Take of allspice one ounce; flowers of sulphur, 
one ounce; turemric, half an ounce; pound them well together 
and stir them thoroughly into half a pound of treacle. Two 
tablespoonfuls may be taken every day. 

Gout and Rheumatism. — The following is the prescription 
for a valuable internal remedy for gout. Wine of eolchicum 
and spirit of nitrous ether, one ounce of each; iodide of potas¬ 
sium, two scruples; distilled water, two ounces; mix well and 
take a teaspoonful three times a day in chamomile tea. 

Pills for Gout and Rheumatism. — Acetic extract of eolchi¬ 
cum, two grains; powdered ipecacuanha, four grains; compound 


422 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


extract of colocynth, half a drachm; blue pill, four grains; divide 
into twelve pills and take one every morning and evening. 

Acute Rheumatism or Rheumatic Gout. — Take saltpeter, 
sulphur, mustard and turkey rhubarb, half an ounce of each, 
and of powdered gum guaiacum, one quarter of an ounce. Mix 
well together and dissolve one teaspoonful in a wine-glassful of 
pure cold water (the water should have been boiled); to he taken 
every night for three nights, then miss three nights, then take 
again for three nights and so on till cured. 

Valuable Lotion for Rheumatism, Lumbago, Sprains, Bruises, 
Chilblains and Bites of Insects. Take one raw egg, well beaten; 
half a pint of vinegar; one ounce of spirits of turpentine; a quar¬ 
ter of an ounce of spirits of wine, and a quarter of an ounce of 
camphor. Mix the ingredients well together, then put them in 
a bottle and shake them for ten minutes. The bottle must be 
tightly corked to exclude the air. The lotion will be ready for 
use in half an hour, and must be well rubbed in, with the naked 
hand, on the part affected. For rheumatism in the head, rub 
the lotion in at the back of the neck and behind the ears as fre¬ 
quently and as long as it can be borne. .Caution. —This lotion 
must not be used for broken chilblains, nor on any broken 
surface of the skin. 

Another Remedy for Sprains. — Put the white of an egg into 
a saucer, stir into it a lump of alum until it becomes a thick 
jelly; dip a piece of lint large enough to cover the sprained part 
into the jelly and apply it to'-the part affected;'change the lint 
for a fresh piece as often as it becomes warm or dry; keep the 
limb in a horizontal position. 

Flour Cure for Burns. — A simpie covering of common 
white flour makes the best application for burns. The moisture 
which exudes from the burn is absorbed by the flour, and it forms 
a paste which entirely shuts out the air. This covering may be 
washed off when it becomes very dry and a new coating of flour 
applied. This simple remedy produces most astonishing results. 

Ointment for Freckles. — Dissolve one ounce of Venice soap 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


423 


in half an ounce of lemon juice, and add to it a quarter of 
an ounce each of oil of bitter almonds and deliquiated oil of tar¬ 
tar. Place this in the sunshine till it becomes an ointment, 
then drop in three drops of the oil of rhodium and keep ready 
for use. Apply the ointment at night. 

SIMPLE SURGERY FOR INJURIES ARISING FROM ACCIDENTS. 

No attempt will be made in these pages to deal with that 
large class of surgical cases which require a knowledge of the anat¬ 
omy of the human body; wounds, dislocations, broken limbs, 
severe sprains and those nervous shocks to the human system 
which so frequently result from railway accidents, runaway 
accidents, toboggan slides; — all require surgical care and skill, 
and it is only in very exceptional cases that an untrained person 
or an amateur at surgery is justified in attempting to deal with 
serious cases of this character. 

Cuts. — Boys and even men are so prone to inflict cuts 
and wounds when dallying with edged tools that every house¬ 
hold should be supplied with a roll of linen rags or cotton lint; 
a spool of thread and a pair of fine tweezers or forceps, in readi¬ 
ness for any emergency. A roll of adhesive plaster should be 
always on hand. In ordinary cuts a slight pressure upon the 
artery involved and the application of cold water will suffice to 
stop the bleeding while the dressing and bandage are applied. 
All that is necessary is to gently press the edges of the cut 
closely together, bind them with adhesive plaster, and put on 
a sufficient bandage to prevent any disturbance of the wound 
and keep out the air and all particles of dust and dirt. 

Stabs, etc. — Punctured and incised wounds are easily 
healed if no artery has been severed. A pad or plug of fine lint 
applied to the wound, and a cold water compress covering the 
parts around the wounded surface, will give nature all the assist¬ 
ance she requires. 

Torn Flesh. — In cases where from any cause the flesh has 
been lacerated the main points are, to sponge out any dirt or 


424 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


foreign substances; press the torn parts gently but firmly 
together; to secure them with adhesive plaster, and to keep 
down inflammation by the use of compresses wrung out of 
iced water. 

Bruised Nails. — Accidents are frequently occurring by 
which some of the nails of the hands or feet are badly bruised, 
causing intense pain to the sufferer; to relieve the pain and assist 
nature in casting off the injured nail, put the hand or foot into 
water as hot as it can be borne and keep it there until the pain 
subsides; then apply a dressing of lotion of rhus toxicodendron, 
arnica or iodine. The first is the best. 

Fish Bone , wheat beard, or other foreign substance in the 
throat. It frequently happens that while in the act of swallow 
ing, a fine fish bone becomes lodged in the mucous membrane of 
the throat; this must be removed or violent inflammation will 
ensue. The same result follows to farmers and others who in 
threshing out bearded grain allow the beard or spear of the 
grain to enter their throats. The treatment to be adopted is to 
draw out the tongue and depress it so as to get a view of the 
foreign substance, if possible, and then with a pair of tweezers or' 
fine scissors to draw out the bone or beard. Care must be taken 
not to break it off and leave the point in the throat. If the bone 
or beard cannot be seen it may be coughed up; take a heavy 
pinch of snuff, as the act of sneezing may dislodge the bone; or, in¬ 
hale cayenne pepper until it excites a fit of coughing, which may 
throw up the intruding substance; sometimes the swallowing of 
thick, glutinous substances, beaten eggs, or treacle posset, may 
carry down the beard or bone. But at whatever cost it must be 
got rid of. 

Foreign Substance in the Eye . — Passengers on the railway 
cars frequently get particles of grits lodged under the eyelids 
and in other ways the same result ensues with dust or hairs. 

Caution . — Do not rub the eye, either with the finger or the 
handkerchief, as that may make the injury far greater than it 
would be. Treatment: Get a firm hold of the eyelash of the 


HOUSEHOLD REMEDIES. 


425 


upper lid, draw the lid gently but firmly out from the eyeball, 
then draw it down over the lower eyelash, and the offending sub¬ 
stance, if not stuck into the lining membrane, will most proba¬ 
bly be brushed off onto the lower lash. If this does not succeed 
get a friend to roll back the eyelid and examine it hTa clear light. 
If the offending substance can be seen it may be drawn out with 
a pair of fine tweezers. If this fails surgical aid may have to be 
obtained, without any delay. 

Foreign Substance in the Nose. — Children often put some 
object up in the nostril, which becomes lodged there. Treat¬ 
ment: Use snuff or pepper to make the child sneeze it out if 
possible. If this does not succeed try to dislodge it and draw 
it down with a fine hairpin. If you fail send for the doctor. 

Foreign Substance in the Ear. — Insects in the ear may be 
dislodged by pouring sweet oil into the ear, the head being laid 
flat on the sound side. Peas, marbles, etc., may be washed out 
by a sharp jet of water syringed into the ear. Caution. — Do not 
probe at the tympanum with any hard substance, or the results 
may be very serious. 

Fish-hook in the Flesh. —Do not wriggle the hook about, as 
that increases the laceration. Move the hook gently but firmly 
back to the point at which it entered, and if necessary, make a 
small incision to set the barbed end of the hook free. Wash the 
wound and bind it up with strips of plaster. 

Thorn, Splinter or Needle in the Flesh. —Avoid probing at the 
visible end, or you drive it deeper; if the end is free the object 
maybe withdrawn with tweezers; if not, grasp the surrounding 
flesh firmly between the thumb and forefinger and press it forci¬ 
bly up to a mound shape; this will probably bring the point to 
the surface, so that it may be grasped with a pair of fine tweezers; 
if not, an incision must be made to enable you to get hold of the 
end. 

Felons, Whitlows, efc.—Laundry women are very subject to 
to this painful affliction; excision with the surgeon's knife is 
the only radical remedy. If not too near a joint they may be cut 


426 LIVES ENDANGERED BY DROWNING. 

out by any person of ordinary nerve and skill. They may become 
very dangerous if neglected. 

Ingrowing Toe Nails. —Small shoes which cramp the feet 
frequently force the point of the nails downward and inward. 
Soak the feet in warm water and soap them well around the nails; 
this will soften the nail; then with a sharp knife pare back the 
center of the nail, and if necessary put the least bit of cotton 
wool dipped in olive oil under the edge of the nail; this will 
prevent its adhesion to the flesh, and make it grow upward in a 
graceful curve. 

Corns—the result of wearing tight boots .—Soft corns may 
be cured with extract of lead, hard corns painted on and close 
round the edge of the core with strong acetic acid may be com¬ 
pletely extracted. Paring is of no use: the core must be 
extracted. Easy shoes which give freedom for the toes to 
expand in walking will insure freedom from this pest. 

Bunions .—Due to forcing the joint of the great toe out of 
its proper place so as to open one side of the joint and leave the 
other tight shut; the matter which escapes forms the morbid 
growth. Paint the bunion with tincture of iodine every night, 
and wear a small piece of sponge soaked in oil between the great 
toe and its neighbor. This will restore the joint to its place. 

Warts. —Touch the points once or twice a day with lunar 
caustic; or paint with nitric acid (for quick results)-, or with 
chromic acid (for painless cure). 

Bee Stings. —Extract the sting carefully ; suck the wound; 
and rub on hartshorn, sweet oil, the open side of an onion cut 
in half, or the bluebag used in the laundry.' 

RESTORATION OF PERSONS WHOSE LIVES ARE ENDANGERED BY 
DROWNING OR POISONS. 

The exclusion of air from the lungs and consequent asphyxia 
is the immediate cause of death to persons who are drowned, 
hanged or suffocated. The primary object in dealing with 
drowned persons is to induce respiration, for though this func¬ 
tion of life has apparently ceased the lungs may be induced to 


LIVES ENDANGERED BY DROWNING. 427 

resume their normal action; and if one inspiration or expiration 
can be produced the patient may be restored to the exercise of 
all the functions of human life, unless death should ensue from 
other causes, such as shock to the nervous centers. To induce 
respiration the water must first be expelled from the chest and 
stomach. To effect this place the patient on the ground, face 
downward, place a good pile of pillows, etc., under the stomach, 
and press the hands over the back and spine (specially the lower 
part of the back) to force the water out at the mouth. 

The water having been expelled place the patient on his back, 
put a roll under the shoulders so as to raise the chest six or 
eight inches; take the depressed head of the patient gently 
between your knees, flex the forearms of the patient on the 
chest; grasp the upper arms.pf the patient in your two hands just 
above the flexed elbows, and work the upper arms firmly against 
the ribs and sides of the chest. Continue this first movement 
for a few seconds, counting deliberately one, two, etc., while you 
knead the chest of the patient with his elbows. Inflex the elbows, 
draw the arms gently, firmly backward until they are extended 
at full length above the head of the patient, and hold them in 
this position while you count as before, one, two; then return to 
the first movement for the same period; then to the second 
movement and so on. This imitation of natural respiration may 
induce the lungs to resume their functions; it must be continued 
at the rate of about fifteen times per minute until natural respi¬ 
ration is induced or all hope of resuscitation is lost. Patients 
have been resuscitated after three or four hours of such persever¬ 
ing effort, and hope should not be too quickly abandoned. 

Another successful movement is as follows: The water having 
been expelled, place the patient on his back with a good roll of 
something under the small of the back; extend the arms at full 
length back over the head, tie the hands firmly together; press 
heavily upon the chest and epigastrium by a forward motion, 
throwing the weight of the body on to your hands, and thus raise 
yourself back so as to allow the chest of the patient to expand 
by its own elasticity. 


428 


POISONS — ANTIDOTES. 


When respiration has been restored attention must be directed 
to the circulation of the blood; brisk rubbing with the hands or 
with rough towels will soon restore the natural warmth, and as 
much nutritious food should be given as can betaken with safety. 
Suffocation requires the same general treatment, with the addi¬ 
tion of the occasional’ sprinkling of the body with cold water. 

Poisoning .—The administration of poison to the human 
stomach may be due either to ignorance, mistake or suicidal 
intention. Poisoning in mines by coal gas or foul damp, and in 
wells, is generally due to accident or bad judgment. In the 
latter case as a rule little can be done beyond the treatment 
already prescribed for the restoration of persons drowned or 
suffocated; with this exception: Persons poisoned by carbonic 
acid gas should be treated with small doses of tincture of aconite, 
-one drop at a time, often repeated. Persons poisoned by 
coal gas should be dosed with liberal draughts of vinegar and 
water at short intervals. Poisons that naturally produce free 
vomiting will require but little special attention. Poisons that 
. that do not promote vomiting require the immediate administra¬ 
tion of some powerful emetics and the use of artificial means, 
such as tickling the mucous membrane of the back part of the 
throat with a feather, until complete evacuation of the contents 
of the stomach is insured. Poisons that paralyze the stomach 
(such as opium) demand the prompt and vigorous use of the 
stomach pump, which should never be used by anyone but an ex¬ 
perienced operator, as serious injury to the vital organs may 
ensue from inexperience. The appropriate antidotes for all the 
principal poisons in use and the methods of applying them are 
given in the subjoined table. 

TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 


POISONS. 


ANTIDOTES. 


For arsenic, “ white pre¬ 
cipitate,” “ratsbane” or 
Paris Green. 


Emetics, followed by free use of 


hydrated sesqui, oxide of iron, 
chalk or magnesia, and castor 


oil. 



POISONS —ANTIDOTES. 


429 


For lead-poisoning, corrosive' 
sublimate, red precipitate, 
vermilion, saltpeter, white [ 
vitriol, blue vitriol, chlor¬ 
ide of zinc. 

For lye - poisoning, strong 
ammonia, caustic soda or ► 
caustic potash. 

For nitrate of silver or lunar [ 
caustic. { 

j 

For nux vomica, strychnia, f 
and its salts. f 

For carbolic acid or creo- / 
sote. f 

For oxalic acid, sulphuric, I 
nitric or muriatic acid. [ 


For opium, laudanum, mor¬ 
phia, aconite, belladonna, 
digitalis, stramonium, etc. 


For iodine. 


Emetics, followed by copious 
draughts of sweet milk and 
white of egg, sweet oil, and 
mucilaginous drinks. 

Free doses of vinegar or lemon 
juice, oil or warm lard with 
white of egg, followed by mus¬ 
tard or ipecac, in warm water. 

Moderate use of strong solution 
of common salt, vomiting fol¬ 
lowed by plenty of sweet milk. 

An emetic followed by tannic 
acid and chloroform. 

Olive or castor oil freely adminis¬ 
tered. 

Soda, chalk, lime, calcimine, am¬ 
monia or other alkali, followed 
by oil and emulsions. 

Emetics, cold applications to 
shock the nervous system, strong 
coffee; with opium and opiates, 
keep patient constantly moving; 
' with the rest, maintain recum¬ 
bent position; head low, to in- 

* duce flow of blood to the 
brain. 

y Starch, followed by an emetic. 






430 


CHEMISTRY OF THE CEEEALS. 


For sugar-of-lead poisoning. 


Alum and carbonates of soda or 
potash in plenty of water, fol¬ 
lowed by sulphate of zinc, to 
induce vomiting. 


Strong tea or tannin in water; 
For tartar emetic (anti- . warmth to hands, feet, spine 
mony). and pit of stomach, small doses 

of diluted brandy. 


For phosphorus, vermin 
paste, match heads, etc. 


Blue vitriol in large quantities to 
empty stomach, hydrated mag- 
► nesia to purge, and French oil 

J of turpentine, or, experiment¬ 
ally, the American crude oil. 


For alcohol. 


/ Cupping, exercise, hot coffee, and 
C aromatic spirits of ammonia. 


For prussic acid, oil of bit¬ 
ter almonds, cherry lau¬ 
rel, cyanides, etc. 


Ammonia (diluted) followed by 
oxide of iron; artificial respir¬ 
ation if necessary, and stimu¬ 
lants. 


CHEMISTRY OF THE CEREALS. 

The cereals, five of which enter mainly into the commerce of 
the world, with their two congeners, rice and buckwheat, con¬ 
tain all the elements essential to human nourishment. The 
same organic, and essentially the same mineral elements in vary¬ 
ing proportions, exist in them all. Taking wheat as the stand¬ 
ard, an average analysis of a large variety of the wheats of the 
world gives the following results in percentages: Water, 14; 
albuminoids, 14.6, of which 12.8 are insoluble gluten; starch, 
59.7; gum and sugar, 1.7; cellulose, 1.7; oil, 1.2; and mineral 
matter, 1.6. The latter is mostly connected with the outer bran 
coatings of the grain or the cellulose, and does not enter to a 




CHEMISTRY OF THE CEREALS. 


431 


great extent into our modern bread. Something less than one- 
half of these mineral elements is phosphoric acid, and a little 
less than one-third is potash; there being, besides iron, soda, 
lime, magnesia, etc., in small quantities. These are essential to 
the growth and nourishment of the bony tissues and the blood, 
but any deficiency from the elimination of the bran is more 
palatably supplied from their abundant store in the various vege¬ 
table foods that are naturally craved. 

Starch, as is seen, occupies the largest space, commensurate 
with its importance as fuel or a force-producer, and in the com¬ 
plex peptonic changes of the processes of digestion. Though 
the starches of different grains and vegetables, such as the 
potato, arrowroot, sago, etc., of which it is the main constitu¬ 
ent, differ in the form of cells and qualities from each other, the 
presence of any of them may be shown by adding a small quan¬ 
tity of iodine to a watery mixture, which will immediately turn 
blue. The amount of the natural gum and sugar of the grain 
is small, but they are readily increased by the fermentive 
changes of the starch, from which sugar, dextrine, alcohol and 
carbonic acid are formed, with the accompanying evolution of 
force. The albuminoids are the muscle-forming element of our 
food, and are most essential, but in much smaller proportions 
than the others; while in their consumption in the human econ¬ 
omy they go largely to. the production of heat, being required 
for repair of tissue in only small quantities when the other 
elements are fully supplied. 

A very small amount of nitrogenous nourishment, combined 
with fat, will keep in a healthy working condition the most 
severely taxed laborers. The albumen of grain resembles that in 
the egg, and is soluble. The insoluble gluten is the more 
important nitrogenous element of wheat, giving it mainly its 
excellent bread making value. The oil of wheat is mainly 
found in the germ, which the best modern processes discard 
from the flour because of its ferment, injuring its keeping as 
well as its bread-making value. But this, too, in butter and 


432 


FOODS AND THEIR ELEMENTS, 


animal fats as well as other vegetable oils, is abundantly supplied 
in other ways. The knowledge of these elements and their 
modes of assimilation by the growing plant is of the greatest im¬ 
portance to the grain grower, if he would meet with the highest 
success. 

FOODS AND THEIR CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS. 


Grains Per Pound. 


Carbon. 

Nitro¬ 

gen. 

Value 
per lb. 

Split peas 

2699 

248 

2 

cts. 

Indian meal 

3016 

120 

2 

a 

Barley “ 

2563 

68 

2 

a 

Rye 

2693 

86 


a 

Oat “ 

2881 

136 

4 

a 

Baker’s bread 1975 

88 

3 

it 

Pearl barley 

2660 

91 

4 

4 i 

Rice 

2732 

68 

4 

a 

Potatoes 

769 

22 

1 

a 

Turnips 

263 

13 

1 

n 

Green vegeta¬ 
bles 

420 

14 

1 

a 

Carrots 

508 

14 

1 

a 

Parsnips 

554 

12 

1 

a 

Sugar 

2955 


5 

it 


Grains Per Pound. 



Carbon. 

Nitro¬ 

gen. 

Value 
per lb. 

Treacle 

2395 


2 cents. 

Butter milk 

387 

44 

1 

a 

Skimmed “ 

438 

43 

2 

(• 

New “ 

599 

44 

4 

it 

Mutton 

1900 

189 

10 

it 

Beef 

1854 

184 

16 

a 

Fat Pork 

4113 

106 

14 

a 

Dry bacon 

5987 

95 

14 

11 

Green “ 

5426 

76 

12 

ti 

Suet 

4710 


12 

a 

Lard 

4819 


10 

a 

Salt butter 

4585 


12 

a 

Fresh “ 

6456 


10 

a 

Cocoa 

3934 

140 

8 

a 


* 









CHAPTER XXXIII. 


THE INTER-STATE COMMRECE LAW. 



HIS law which came into effect April, 1887, applies to 
any common carrier, or carriers, engaged in the trans¬ 
portation of passengers or property, wholly by rail¬ 
road, or partly by railroad and partly by water, when 
both are used, if under a common control, manage¬ 
ment or arrangement. 

The bill does not apply when the conveyance is 
entirely within one state. 

The term “railroad” includes bridges and ferries, 
and “transportation” all means of shipment or car¬ 
riage. 

All special rates, levied directly or indirectly, are 
by it forbidden. The bill is framed to shut out the possibility 
of any device being adopted by rebates, drawbacks, or otherwise, 
to avoid its effects.’ 

Any undue or unreasonable preference, or advantage, to any 
particular person, company, firm, corporation, or locality, or any 
particular description of traffic, is forbidden. 

Equal, facilities for the interchange of traffic between differ¬ 
ent lines must be given. 

Shorter distances must not be charged more than longer ones; 
but, upon application to the commission appointed under the 
act, authority, in certain cases, may be obtained to charge less 
for longer than* for shorter distances for the transportation of 
passengers or property. 

Agreement between carriers for the pooling of freights of dif¬ 
ferent and competing railroads is rendered illegal by the bill. 

98 483 













434 


THE IKTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. 


Schedules must be printed and publicly exhibited showing 
rates, fares and charges ; and these can only be altered after ten , 
days’ notice of the change. 

Every common carrier must file with the commission copies 
of these schedules. 

Carriers must not, by any device, prevent the carriage of 
freight from being, and being treated, as one continuous car¬ 
riage. 

For violation of the law, the carrier becomes liable to the 
person or persons injured in damages, including an attorney’s 
fee. 

Persons injured may either complain to the commission at 
Washington, or take action in any District, or Circuit court of 
the United States, of competent jurisdiction. 

Any infraction of this act, either directly, indirectly, or by 
aiding and abetting, is constituted a misdemeanor, and renders 
the offender liable to a fine of not more than $5,000 for each 
offense. 

The commission appointed under this bill is composed of five 
members appointed by the President, and entered office January 
1, 1887. 

Each commissioner receives an annual salary of $7,500; their 
secretary receiving $3,500. 

Nothing in the Inter-state Commerce bill applies to the car¬ 
riage, storage, or handling of property, free or at reduced rates, 
for the United States, or municipal government; or for charita¬ 
ble purposes; or to or from fairs or expositions; or to the issu¬ 
ance of mileage, excursion, or commutation passenger tickets. 
Reduced rates may be given to ministers of religion. Employes 
of the railroad may have free carriage on the different lines as 
arranged for them by the principal officers. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 


LEGAL MAXIMS AND FORMS. 


KNOWLEDGE of some simple facts inlaw would of¬ 
ten add to a man's mental comfort, as well as save him 
time and money. In many matters there is no more 
necessity for one to run off to a lawyer for advice, than 
there is to take a cut finger to a surgeon. From igno¬ 
rance of elementary facts there are many who suffer 
bewilderment and disquietude, -and render themselves 
liable to be placed in false and foolish positions, whilst 
on the other hand, by having a few forms beside 
them regarding affairs which enter commonly into 
our lives, they may be enabled to do for themselves 
at no cost at all and with little trouble what other¬ 
wise is often a source of expense and worry. Everything con¬ 
nected with the legal profession is apt in the popular mind to be 
associated with difficulty and a certain dread. No doubt there 
are many occasions, when it is advisable to place oneself in the 
hands of a reliable lawyer, just as when a serious illness over¬ 
takes a man the wisest plan is at once to call in the experienced 
physician; but is astonishing how seldom, in the majority of 
cases, either the doctor or the lawyer is a necessity in a man's 
life. There are some, indeed, who do not seem able to content 
themselves unless they are engaged in litigation, but common- 
sense people place a higher value on their time and money. 

The following rules and statement of facts, then, should be 
carefully noted. 

GENERAL MAXIMS. 

When a matter in dispute can be settled at even some sacri- 
435 









436 


GENERAL MAXIMS. 


fice of feeling, or a claim adjusted by a moderate abatement of 
one’s demands, it is better to make such a sacrifice than to go to 
law. 

When recourse to law cannot be avoided, it is always best to 
employ a thoroughly qualified practitioner in good standing. 
Here as elsewhere the best is, in the long run, the cheapest. 

In business dealings e^en with friends, it is best, from every 
point of view, to observe strict business forms. 

Friendly understandings in business matters, are the prolific 
source of misunderstandings, estrangements, and loss. 

Threats of legal proceedings should not drive any one to incon¬ 
siderate action. As a rule the man who threatens has a weak 
point about himself or his case. 

No man should go to law for a sentiment. 

Unless there is a reasonable certainty of clear gain, either in 
money, reputation, or otherwise, it is better to settle matters out 
of court. The present loss is often the smallest. 

The law is a costly rod to beat an enemy with. 

FACTS TO MAKE FAMILIAR 

Written instruments are to be construed and interpreted by 
the law according to the simple, customary, and natural mean¬ 
ing of the words used. 

No evidence can be introduced to contradict or vary a written 
contract, but it may be received in order to explain it, when such 
evidence is needed. 

A receipt for money is not always conclusive. 

Signatures made with a lead pencil are held good in law. 

A nofe made on Sunday is void. 

A note by a minor is voidable. 

A note obtained by fraud, or from a person in a state of intox¬ 
ication, cannot be collected, unless it falls into the hands of an 
innocent party. 

If the time of payment of a note is not named, it is payable 
on demand. 


FACTS TO MAKE FAMILIAR. 


43? 


Value received should be written in a note, but, if not, it may 
be supplied by proof. 

The payee should be named in a note unless payable to 
bearer. 

The time of payment of a note must not depend on a contin¬ 
gency. The promise must be absolute. 

The maker of an accommodation bill or note is not bound to 
the person accommodated, but is bound to all other parties, 
just as if there was a good consideration. 

Checks or drafts should be presented without unnecessary 
delay, and during business hours, although this is only compul¬ 
sory in the case of banks. 

If the person on whom a check or draft is drawn has changed 
his residence, the holder must use due and reasonable diligence 
to find him. 

If you pay a check over to a third party, you have a right to 
insist that it be presented on that day or the day following. 

An indorsement of a bill or note may be written on the face or 
back. 

An indorser may prevent his own liability to be sued by writ¬ 
ing without recourse , or similar words. 

An indorsee has a right of action against all whose names were 
on the bill when he received it. 

A note indorsed in blank (the name of the indorser only 
written) is transferable by delivery, the same as if made payable 
to bearer. 

If two or more persons, as partners, are jointly liable on a 
note or bill, notice to one of them is sufficient. 

The finder of negotiable paper, as of all other property, 
must make reasonable efforts to find the owner, before he is 
entitled to appropriate it to his own benefit. If the finder con¬ 
ceal it he is liable to the charge of larceny or theft. 

Principals are responsible for the acts of their agents, per¬ 
formed within the scope of their authority. 

The acts of one partner bind all the rest. 


438 


LEGAL FORMS. 


Each individual in a partnership is responsible for the whole 
amount of the debts of the firm, except in cases of special part¬ 
nership. 

A contract made with a minor is voidable. 

Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced. 

Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

The law does not require one to do impossibilities. 

LEGAL FORMS. 

Blank forms of a deed, lease, a mortgage, etc., may be pro¬ 
cured at a stationer’s. 

In filling out blanks or making complete papers, care must be 
taken to write everything plainly and state it clearly. 

An Agreement is a document wherein individuals singly or 
collectively bind themselves to perform certain duties within a 
specified time . It should be clear on every point and incapable 
of bearing two constructions. To make it valid at law there 
must be a lawful consideration. It should be signed by*a wit¬ 
ness, who, however, need not know its contents. It is safest to 
execute it in ink. In case of fraud or misrepresentation, on 
either side, the contract is void. Each party to an agreement 
should possess a copy. 

An Acknowledgment is a written statement, made before a 
competent legal authority, admitting the validity of any docu¬ 
ment to which it is appended. 

Any one executing a deed for land or a mortgage is by law 
required to give such an acknowledgment, in order that the 
document may be recorded. 

In the case of married persons, husband and wife must make 
a joint acknowledgment, and, in some states the wife must make 
her voluntary and separate acknowledgment. 

An Assignment may be either in words, when at the same 
time whatever is so assigned must be handed over, or it may be 
in writing. It is simply the transference of a right to property. 
The assignor is the party making over his title, and the assignee 
is the individual receiving it. 


LEGAL FORMS. 


439 


Transfers in real estate must be in writing. The expressions 
used in making an assignment are “assign, transfer and set 
over/* but, “give, grant, bargain and sell” are valid. An 
assignment may either make over property absolutely or in trust. 
When for the benefit of creditors it may be made at common 
law, in which case creditors may be given a preference; or by 
statute, when they may not. All property assigned must be dis¬ 
tinctly described in the assignment, or in the schedule attached 
thereto. 

Bail is the undertaking of one or more persons to satisfy the 
civil authority, in the case of some person who is charged with 
breaking the public law. A sum of money is usually engaged 
to be paid by the bailor, in security for the appearance of the 
accused before the court at the proper time; the latter, on bail 
being given, is released from custody. 

A Bill of Sale is a document by which personal property is 
made over, in right, title, and interest, by one party to another. 
This form frequently gives rise to fraud, as when a man desires 
thereby to escape the payment of his just and legal debts, and 
juries have the power to test the validity of such bills. 

A Bona is an admission in writing of the individual granting 
it, who is termed the obligor, of an obligation, in virtue of which 
he undertakes to pay a certain sum, at a time specified for a real 
consideration. The penalty attached to the bond is usually suf¬ 
ficient to cover debt, interest and costs. It is generally fixed at 
twice the amount of the real debt. The obligee is the person 
to whom a bond is given. 

A Deed is an instrument in writing by which lands and ap¬ 
purtenances thereon are conveyed from one party to another, 
signed, sealed, and properly witnessed. The acknowledgment 
of a deed must be made before a competent legal official, such as 
justices of the peace, notaries, judges, and clerks of court, etc. 
Some states require two witnesses, some one, some none. A deed 
to be valid must be for a realty for which a sufficient considera¬ 
tion is given. 


440 


LEGAL FORMS. 


A Mortgage means literally a dead pledge, because the prop¬ 
erty pledged becomes lost, or dead, to the person who executed 
the mortgage, in event of his not fulfilling its conditions. In 
law it is the conveyance of property, personal or real, as security 
for the payment of a debt, or as a guaranty for the performance 
of some certain duty. The mortgageor is he who pledges his prop¬ 
erty, and the mortgagee is the person to whom it is pledged. 
A mortgage must, like a deed, be acknowledged. 

Patents give exclusive property in inventions to the inventors, 
their heirs, etc. The right of property exists within the United 
States and territories, and extends over a period of seventeen 
years. Applications for patents are made to the commissioner 
of patents, Washington, D. C. 

A Will is the declaration according to law of how any compe¬ 
tent individual wishes to bequeath his property after his death. 
Married women, in some states, are debarred from bequeathing 
their property as they may elect, without the consent of their hus¬ 
bands. No precise form of words is obligatory in law, but the 
greatest care should be taken to give such a description of the 
testator (or testatrix) and of the party, or parties, to whom the 
whole, or any part, of the property is being left, that no doubt or 
difficulty may arise in proving the will. There are such things 
as verbal or nuncupative wills; but they are extremely unsatisfac¬ 
tory, generally resulting when the property is of value in expen¬ 
sive litigation. They are therefore to be avoided. A will made 
by an unmarried woman is legally revoked by marriage, and, sim¬ 
ilarly, if a man has not otherwise provided for his wife and chil¬ 
dren, an antenuptial testament is considered in law as revoked. 
The person named in the will to administer it is called the exec¬ 
utor, the nominee of the court the administrator. 

The testator's name should be written in full at the end of 
the will. If he be unable to write, his hand may be guided in 
making a mark opposite his name. 

Witnesses should add their address to their signatures, which 
should be written in presence of .each other and of the testator. 


JURORS. 


441 


The following states require two witnesses: Illinois, Missouri, 
Ohio, Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Iowa, Utah, Texas, 
California, New Jersey, Delaware, Indiana, Virginia, Oregon, 
Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Louisiana and 
New York. 

Three witnesses are required in Florida, Georgia, Maryland, 
Mississippi, South Carolina, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, 
New Hampshire and Vermont. In Philadelphia two reputable 
witnesses on oath can establish the signature of the testator. 
Witnesses are not required to know the contents of the will. 

A Codicil is an addition to a will previously executed. It 
explains, modifies, or changes previous bequests, and should be 
executed with the same scrupulous care as the will itself. 

JURORS. 

A juror must be resident in the county and not exempt from 
serving on jury; between the ages of twenty-one and sixty; of fair 
character; in the possession of natural faculties; free from legal 
exceptions; of sound judgment; well informed, and who under¬ 
stands the English language. 

The following are generally exempt from serving on juries: 
The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor of 
public accounts, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, 
attorney-general, members of the general assembly during their 
term of office, judges of courts, clerks of courts, sheriffs, coroners, 
postmasters, mail carriers, practicing attorneys, all officers of the 
United States, officiating ministers of the gospel, school-teachers 
during school terms, practicing physicians, constant ferrymen, 
mayors of cities, policemen, and active members of the fire depart¬ 
ment. 

COST OF COLLECTING A DEBT BY LAW. 

A lawyer in an ordinary justice suit will charge for an hour 
$5. A large debt and more time will bring his bill up to from 
$10 to $20. The losing side pays the greater part of the cost. 

An ordinary justice suit, without witnesses, lawyers, or jury. 


442 


COPYRIGHT. 


entails an expense of $3.40. Witnesses cost 50 cents each per 
day, and about 75 cents each of expense to secure their presence. 
In a suit before a justice, when there is a jury, each juryman is 
entitled to 50 cents for hearing the case, should the jury agree; 
and other expenses amount to 75 cents. An appeal to a higher 
court costs $1.10 where the expense will run from $20 to $50. 

AMOUNT OVER WHICH A JUSTICE OF' THE PEACE HAS JURIS¬ 
DICTION. 

Fifty dollars in Virginia; $100 in Alabama, Connecticut, 
Dakota territory, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho territory, 
Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New 
Jersey, New Mexico territory, Rhode Island, South Carolina, 
Washington, West Virginia, Wyoming territory; $150 in Miss¬ 
issippi; $200 in Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, New York, North 
Carolina, Texas, Vermont; $250 in Oregon; $300 in Arkansas, 
California, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mis¬ 
souri, Nevada, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Utah territory, Wisconsin; 
$500 in Tennessee. 

COPYRIGHT. 

When this is desired a printed copy of the title of the book, 
map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, 
print, photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, 
chromo, statue, stationery, or model or design for a work of fine 
arts, must be sent by mail, or otherwise, prepaid and addressed 
“ Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.” This must be done 
before the publication of the work, but the length of time is not 
fixed, and is therefore, legally, a matter of indifference. 

Copyright Fees .—$1 must accompany above, being 50 cents 
for recording the title of the work, and 50 cents for a certificate 
of copyright. Each addressed certificate costs 50 cents. 

To perfect Copyright .—Two complete copies of the best 
edition of the work must, ten days after publication, be for¬ 
warded by mail under free labels sent by the Librarian—or, if 
by express, prepaid, to the above address. If this is omitted the 


COPYRIGHT. 


443 


copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 incurred. Twenty-eight 
years is the term secured by a copyright, which may he extended 
to forty-two years, if an author (or his widow, or children) takes 
care to secure renewal six months before the expiring of the first 
term. The author or his relations should take care to put the 
circumstances clearly and fully in their application for renewal, 
specifying distinctly the date and place of the entry of the origi¬ 
nal copyright. 

When books are published in more than one volume, and are 
designed to be issued or sold separately, or for periodicals pub¬ 
lished in numbers, or engravings, photographs, or other articles 
published, with variations, a copyright is to be taken out of each 
volume of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety as to 
size or inscription of any other article. 

To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, model, or design, 
intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to 
prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such 
design, a definite description must accompany the applica¬ 
tion for copyrights, and a photograph of the same, at least as 
large as “ cabinet size,” must be mailed to the Librarian of Con¬ 
gress within ten days of the completion of the work. 

Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name 
and residence of the claimant, whether the right is claimed as 
author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal applica¬ 
tion is required. 

On the title page, or the page following, of every copy of a 
copyrighted book, or on the face or front (or on the face of the 
substance on which the article is mounted,) of every copyrighted 
map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photo¬ 
graph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or 
design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, 
must be inscribed the following words: “ Entered according to act 

of Congress , in the year - by - in the office of the Librarian 

of Congress, at Washington^ or thus, “ Copyright , 18 — by X, Y. 
Z.” Neglect of this invalidates the copyright. 


r 



444 


NOTICE FROM LANDLORD TO TENANT. 


The law imposes a penalty of $100 on any person who, not 
having obtained a copyright, shall insert, “Entered according 
to act of Congress ,” etc., or “ copyright” or words of the same 
import, on any book, or article. 

An author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize his 
work. This should be intimated to the Librarian of Congress, 
that it may be entered on the record. The publication should 
then bear the words, Right of translation reserved , or, all rights 
reserved . 

FORM OF NOTICE TO QUIT FROM LANDLORD TO TENANT. 

Sir: I hereby give you notice to quit the house and appur¬ 
tenances, situated at No. —, which you now hold of me on or 
before.next. 

Dated.18.. 

Signed .(landlord.) 

FORM OF NOTICE FROM TENANT TO LANDLORD. 

Sir: I hereby give you notice that on or before the. 

day.of.next I shall quit and deliver up possession 

of the house and premises I now hold of you, situated. 

in the town of.in the county of. 

Dated this.... day of.18.. 

To . Witness. 

FORM OF A RECEIPT FOR RENT. 

Chicago, March 1st, 18.. 

Received of.the sum of.in full for rent of 

(state premises) for the month (or quarter) ending.18.. 

(Signature). 

USURY LAWS. 

There has been a strong feeling against the taking of usury 
(or exorbitant interest whether in money, service or goods) 
through all the centuries of the Christian era, and in almost all 
countries. So far as Christian communities go this abhorrence 
was intensified by the language of Holy Scripture and the 
















USURY LAWS. 


445 


authority of the church. It is now, however, a settled matter 
among political economists, and all accurate, well-informed 
thinkers, legal and others, that laws against usury are had in 
themselves and harmful in their operation. Those whom it is 
their intention to benefit and protect are only injured by their 
operation, as they are either driven to ruin from being unable 
to borrow money at the legal rate, which, is not sufficient to 
cover the risk, and which, therefore, those who have it to lend 
will not part with; or they are driven into dealing with unscrupu¬ 
lous men whose charges are usurious all the more that they are 
acting in defiance of the law. It is astonishing that so simple a 
matter should have so long clouded the intelligence of the commer¬ 
cial world; but when religion is permitted to invade economic 
questions in a ivrong way , there is no end to confusion and 
difficulty. The history of usury is a very interesting and instruct¬ 
ive one, and “ very curious and quaint are some of the old 
cases reported in the books concerning that detestable sin of 
usurie,” for which our ancestors were freely introduced to all 
the pains and penalties attached to the statutes, enforced with 
all the bitterness approved by the prejudices of the time. 

The passages in the Bible which refer to this subject are the 
following: Leviticus: “ Thou shalt not lend upon usury to thy 
brother. Take thou no usury of him, or increase, but fear thy 
God, that thy brother may live with thee. Thou shalt not give 
him thy money upon usury, nor lend him thy victuals upon 
increase." Deuteronomy: “ Thou shalt take no usury of thy 
brother.” Psalms: “ Lord; who shall dwell in thy tabernacle? 
or who shall rest upon thy holy hill? . . . He that hath not 

given his money upon usury, nor taken reward against the 
innocent.” This prohibition seems as strong as could be, but it 
must be remembered that usury here is equivalent to what we 
call interest , and not only exorbitant interest, or usury; and that, 
whilst such an enactment suited well enough in a theocracy 
such as the Jewish community was, it is not either wise or 
economically just in modern times. Indeed, it would be quite as 


446 


USUKY LAWS. 


valid to contend, and more so, that the Bible teaches commu¬ 
nism, as to insist on this matter of the divine prohibition of 
interest on loans. 

In addition it may he said that credit, on which the gigantio 
commerce of the world depends, is altogether a modern thing, 
and that loans on interest are essential to its existence. Unless 
money can be borrowed trade cannot be carried on; and if no 
premium be allowed for the hire of money, few persons will care 
to lend it, or, at least, the ease of borrowing at “ short warning, 
which is the life of commerce,” will be entirely at an end. “ Few, 
if any, will care to risk their means in the speculations of 
another unless a reward commensurate with the hazard run is held 
out. The hazard of the loss must have its weight in the regu¬ 
lation of interest. If this be true—and to prevent borrowing is 
to prevent trade—then, though in a less degree, to permit bor¬ 
rowing, but only at a rate of interest below the actual market 
value of money, is to retard the progress of business; for it drives 
the capitalist who respects the laws, or fears its penalties, from the 
markets, and, by withholding the current, ‘ which turns the 
wheels of trade/ limits the productive power of the capital and 
industry of the country." 

The following, then, are now received axioms among intelli¬ 
gent business men: Compensation must be proportioned to the 
risk. Money has a value besides that contemplated by law; and 
which the law can never fix, namely, a market value. Money, 
like water, will always find its own level. Free trade in money 
is the only way of rendering it abundant. 

In England, there are practically now no laws against usury; 
but it is otherwise in the United States. 

The following table exhibits the legal rates of interest in the 
several states, and the penalties attached for usury: 


STATE. LEGAL RATE. PENALTY FOR USURY. 

Alabama.8 per cent. .Forfeit interest and usury only. 

Arkansas. 6 “ Forfeit usury only. (By special con¬ 

tract, 10 per cent.) 

California.10 “ By special contract, any rate whatever. 





USURY LAWS. 


447 


Connecticut. 

. 6 per cent. 

.Usurious contracts utterly void. 

Delaware. 

. 6 

ft 

Forfeit whole debt. 

District of Columbia.. 

. 6 

if 

Usurious contracts void. 

Florida. 

. 8 

i i 

Forfeit interest and usury. 

Georgia. 

, 7 

if 

Forfeit interest and usury only. 

Illinois. 

, 6 

if 

Forfeit interest and usury only. (By 
agreement, 10 per cent.) 

Indiana. 

. 6 

it 

Forfeit double the usury. (By agree¬ 
ment, 10 per cent.) 

Iowa... 

, 6 

if 

Forfeit 10 percent on amount of con¬ 
tract. 

Kentucky. 

6 

4 4 

Forfeit usury only. 

Louisiana. 

. 5 

it 

Forfeit interest and usury. 

Maine. 

6 

4 4 

Excess deducted from amount due. 

Maryland. 

. 6 

4 4 

Usurious contracts void. (On tobacco 
contracts, 8 per cent.) 

Massachusetts. 

6 

44 

Forfeit three times the usury and costs. 

Michigan. 

. 7 

4 4 

Contract void for excess of interest 
only. 

Minnesota. 

T 

a 

By contracting in writing, as high as 
12 per cent. 

Mississippi. 

6 

it 

Forfeit usury and costs. 

Missouri. 

6 

it 

Forfeit interest and usury only. 

New Hampshire. 

6 

ti 

Forfeit three times the usury taken. 

New Jersey. 

6 

4 4 

Contract void, and forfeit full amount 
of debt. Half to informer. 

New York. 

7 

a • 

Contracts void; a misdemeanor. 

North Carolina. 

6 

ft 

Contracts void, and forfeit double the 
amount of loan. 

Ohio. 

6 

a 

Excess credited on principal. 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

ft 

Excess deducted from debt. 

Rhode Island. 

6 

a 

Forfeit usury only. 

South Carolina. 

7 

ft 

Forfeit usury, interest and costs. 

Tennessee. 

6 

it 

Forfeit excess only. 

Texas. 

8 

ti 

Forfeit interest and usury only. (By 
agreement, as high as 12 per cent.) 

Vermont. 

6 

ft 

Forfeit excess; when paid, may be re¬ 
covered back, with interests and 
costs. 

Virginia.... 

6 

tt 

Contract void; lender liable to penalty 
of twice the debt; recoverable in qui 
tam action. 





























448 


THE HOMESTEAD LAW. 


Wisconsin.7 per oent. .Contract valid; but no interest recover¬ 

able thereon. (By agreement, as high 
as 10 per cent.) 

THE HOMESTEAD LAW. 

The law gives to every citizen, and to those who have 
declared their intention to become citizens, the right to a home¬ 
stead on surveyed lands, to the extent of one-quarter section; or 
160 acres, or a half-quarter section, or eighty acres;—the former 
in cases in the class of lower priced land held by law at $1.25 
per acre, the latter of high-priced lands held at $2.50 per acre, 
when disposed of to cash buyers. The pre-emption privilege is 
restricted to heads of families, widows, or single persons over 
the age of twenty-one. 

Every soldier and officer in the army, and every seaman, 
marine and officer of the navy during the recent rebellion, may 
enter 160 acres from either class, and length of time served in 
the army or navy deducted from the time, is required to nerfect 
title. 

THE UKITED STATES LAWD MEASURE. 

A township is thirty-six sections, each a mile square. A 
section is 640 acres. A quarter of a section, half a mile square, 
is 160 acres. An eighth section, half a mile long, north and 
south, and a quarter of a mile wide, is eighty acres. A sixteenth 
section, a quarter of a mile square, is forty acres. 

The sections are all numbered one to thirty-six, commencing 
at northeast corner. 

The sections are all divided in quarters, which are named by 
the cardinal points, as in section one. The quarters are divided 
in the same way. The description of a forty-acre lot would read: 
The south half of the west half of the southwest quarter of 
section one in township twenty-four, north of range seven west, 
or as the case might be; and sometimes will fall short and some¬ 
times overrun the number of acres it is supposed to contaiu. 






CHAPTER XXXV. 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


NOTED FICTITIOUS CHARACTERS AND PLACES. 

BDIEL, the name of an angel mentioned by the 
Jewish Cabalists. Mentioned in “ Paradise Lost. ” 
Absalom, a name given by Dryden in his satirical 
poem, “Absalom and Ahithophel,” to the Duke of 
Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II. 

Absolute, Captain, a character in Sheridan’s 
comedy of “The Rivals.” 

Achitophel, a nickname given to~ the Earl of 
Shaftsbury. 

Acres, Bob , a character in “The Rivals.” 
Adamastor, the Spirit of the Stormy Cape, i.e. 
the Cape of Good Hope, described by Camaeus in 

the Lusiad. 

Adams, Parson, a character in Fielding's novel, “Joseph 
Andrews/’ 

Admirable Doctor, a title bestowed on Roger Bacon (1214- 
1292), an English monk of astonishing scientific genius. ♦ 
Adonais, a poetical name given by Shelley to the poet Keats, 
(1796-1821). 

Agnes (Fr. pron. Anyes'), a young girl inMoliere’s “l’Ecole 
des Femmes/’ who is, or affects to be, remarkably simple and 
ingenuous. The name is applied -to any young woman unsophis¬ 
ticated in the affairs of the heart. 

Ague-cheek, Sir Andrew, a delightful simpleton in Shake¬ 
speare’s “Twelfth Night.” 

Aladdin, “Arabian Nights’ Entertainments.” 

39 449 












450 


PSEUDONYMS OP EMINENT MEN. 


Albany Regency , a name popularly given to a junto of astute 
democratic politicians, having their headquarters at Albany, who 
controlled the action of the democratic party for many years, 
and who had great weight in national politics. The effort to 
elect William H. Crawford president, instead of John Quincy 
Adams, was their first great struggle. 

Al Boralc, an imaginary animal of wonderful form and qual¬ 
ities, on which Mohammed pretended to have performed a noc¬ 
turnal journey from the temple of Mecca to Jerusalem, and 
thence to the seventh heavens, under the conduct of the angel 
Gabriel. 

Alceste , the hero of Moliere’s comedy, “ Le Misanthrope.” 

Allworthy , a character in Fielding’s novel, “ Tom Jones.” 

Alsatia , a popular name formerly given to Whitefriar’s, a 
precinct in London. It was for a long time an asylum for 
insolvent debtors and persons who had offended against the 
laws. 

Al Sir at (the path). A bridge extending from this world 
to the next, over the abyss of hell, which must be passed by 
every one who would enter the Mohammedan paradise. 

Amaryllis , the name of a country girl in the eclogues of 
Virgil, adopted into modern pastoral poetry as the name of a 
mistress or sweetheart. 

Ancient Mariner , the hero of Coleridge’s poem of the same 
name, who, for the crime of having shot an albatross, a bird of 
good omen to voyagers, suffered dreadful penalties. 

Andrews , Joseph , the title of a novel by Fielding, and the 
name of the hero. To ridicule Richardson’s “ Pamela,” Field¬ 
ing made Joseph Andrews a brother of that famous lady, and, 
by way of contrast to Richardson’s hero, represented him as a 
model of virtue and excellence. 

Angelic Doctor, Thomas Aquinas. 

Apostle of Ireland , St. Patrick. 

Apostle of Temperance , Rev. Theobald Matthew, a distin¬ 
guished temperance reformer in Ireland and England, 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


451 


Artful Dodger, a sobriquet of one of the characters in 
Dickens* “ Oliver Twist.** He is a young thief and an adept 
at villainy. 

Audrey a country wench in Shakespeare*s “ As You Like 
It.** 

Auld Reekie, a name of Edinburgh, Scotland. 

Baba, Ali, a character in the “ Arabian Nights* Entertain¬ 
ments.*’ 

Backbite, Sir Benjamin, a censorious character in Sheridan’s 
“ School for Scandal.** 

Balderstone, Caleb, the faithful old butler in Sir Walter Scott’s 
“Bride of Lamermoor.’* 

Balma-Whapple, a pig-headed person in “ Waverley.** 

Banquo, immortalized in Shakespeare’s “Macbeth.** 

Bar dell, Mrs., a widow lady in Dickens* “ Pickwick Papers,** 
who brought an action against Mr. Pickwick for breach of prom¬ 
ise, founded partly on a letter addressed by him to her, of which 
the entire contents were “ Chops and tomato sauce, yours, Pick¬ 
wick.’* She was his landlady. 

Bardolph,- a follower of Falstaff in Shakespeare*s “Merry 
Wives of Windsor,** and two parts of “King Henry IV.** 

Barkis, a character in Dickens* “ David Copperfield,** in 
love with Peggotty, to whom he proposes by writing and dis¬ 
playing before her eyes the words, “ Barkis is willin’.** 

Barleycorn, Sir John, in England and Scotland, a jocular 
name for ale or beer. 

Bayard, the name given in old romances to Renaldo*s famous 
steed, a wonderful animal of bright bay color. 

Beatrice, the charming heroine of Shakespeare*s “ Much Ado 
about Nothing.” 

Beau Tibbs, a prominent character in Goldsmith's “ Citizen 
of the World.** 

Belinda, the poetical name of the heroine of Pope's “ Rape 
of the Lock.** 

Bell, Acton, a pseudonym of Anne Bronte, an English novel¬ 
ist, author of “Agnes Gray.** 


452 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


Bell, Currier, her famous sister Charlotte, author of “ Jane 
Eyre,” etc. 

Bell, Ellis, their sister Emily, author of “Wuthering 
Heights.” 

Bell, Peter, the silly subject of a poem by Wordsworth, con¬ 
cerning whom the now hackneyed lines were written: 

“ The primrose by the river’s brim, 

A yellow primrose was to him, 

And it was nothing more.” 

Benedick, who marries Beatrice in “ Much Ado about Noth¬ 
ing.” The name is often applied to one who gets married after 
saying he wouldn’t. 

Biglow, Mr. Hosea, James Russell Lowell. 

Black Monday, a memorable Easter Monday, 1351, very dark 
and misty. The name afterwards came to be applied to the 
Monday after Easter of each year. 

Blue Laics, a name derisively given to the quaint regulations 
of the early government of New Haven Plantation, when the 
public authorities kept a sharp watch over the deportment of 
the people of the colony, and published all breaches of good 
morals and manners with often ludicrous formality. The laws- 
as to the observance of Sabbath were terribly severe, descending 
to such particulars as that a mother, on that day, should not 
kiss her children, whilst absolutely no kind of work, even domes¬ 
tic, was permitted, and even walking was allowed only to and 
from church. 

Bobadil, Captain, a beggarly and cowardly braggart, in Ben 
Jonson’s comedy, “ Every Man in His Humor.” 

Bomba, a sobriquet given to Ferdinand II., last King of 
the two Sicilies (1810-1859). 

After Palermo’s fatal siege, 

Across the western seas he fled 
In good King Bomba's happy reign. 

— Longfellow. 

The name is m derision, as King Puff-cheek, King Lear, King 
Knave. 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


453 


Bowling, Tom, the name of a celebrated moral character in 
Smollett’s novel of “Roderick Random.” 

Boz, Charles Dickens. 

Brag, Jack, the hero of a novel of that name by Theodore 
Hook. 

Bride of the Sea, a poetical name of Venice. 

Bridge of Sighs, the name popularly given to the covered 
passage-way which connects the Doge’s palace in Venice with 
the state prisons, from the circumstance that the condemned 
prisoners were transported over this bridge, from the hall of 
judgment to the place of execution. Hood has used the name 
as the title of one of his poems. 

Brother Jonathan, a sportive collective name for the people 
of the United States, originated accidentally at Washington. 

Bull, John, a collective name for the English nation, first, 
•used in Arbuthnot’s satire, “The History of John Bull.” In 
this satire the French are designated as “ Lewis Baboon,” and 
the Dutch as “Nicholas Frog.” 

Cabal, The, a name given in English history to a famous 
cabinet council formed in 1670 and composed of five unpopular 
ministers of Charles II.; the word is composed of the first letter 
of their several names: Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, 
Lauderdale. v w 

Cagliostro, Count de, the assumed name of Joseph Balsamo, 
(1743-1795), one of the most impudent and successful impostors 
of modern times. 

Caliban (a metathesis of cannibal), a savage and deformed 
slave of Prospero in Shakespeare’s “Tempest.” 

Capability Brown, Launcelot Brown, a famous English gard¬ 
ener of the last century, so called from his constant use of the 
word “ capability,” as well as on account of his genius for mak¬ 
ing sterile or naked grounds fruitful and beautiful. 

There is a very large or artificial lake (at Blenheim) which was created 
by Capability Brown, and fills the basin that he scooped for it, just as if 
Nature had poured these broad waters into one of her own valleys.— Haw- 
thorne. 


454 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


Carabas, Marquis of, a fanciful title employed to designate 
a man who possesses, or makes a boast of possessing, large estates; 
any pompous and purse-proud person. The name occurs in the 
nursery tale of “Puss in Boots .” 

Casella , the name of a musician and old friend of Dante, 
immortalized in “ La Divina Commedia.” 

Cathay, an old name for China. 

Through the shadow of the globe we sweep into the younger day, 

Better fifty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay. 

— Tennyson . 

Caudle, Mrs. Margaret, the feigned author of “Curtain 
Lectures,” by Douglas Jerrold. 

Cid , The, a title given to Don Rodrigo Laynez, a Spanish 
nobleman of the 11th century, by five Moorish generals he 
defeated. He is regarded as the model of the heroic virtues of 
his age, and the flower of Spanish chivalry. 

Cities of the Plain, name given to Sodom and Gomorrah. 

Calin Clout, a name applied by Spenser to himself. 

Cockagne, an imaginary country of idleness and luxury; hence 
in burlesque, London and its suburbs. 

Cockney School, or Cockney Poets, a name given by critics to 
a literary coterie which included Leigh Hunt, Shelley, Keats 
and others. 

Cologne, The Three Kings of, a name given to the three magi 
whose bodies are said to have been brought by the Empress Hel¬ 
ena from the East to Constantinople, whence they were trans¬ 
ferred to Milan. In 1164, on Milan being taken by the Emperor 
Frederick, they were presented by him to the Archbishop of 
Cologne, who placed them in the principal church of the city, 
“ where,” says Cressy, “ they are to this day celebrated with 
great veneration. 

Caphetua, an imaginary African king, of whom the legend¬ 
ary ballads told that he fell in love with the daughter of a beg¬ 
gar and married her. 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


455 


Young Adam Cupid, he that shot so trim 
When King Caphetua loved the beggar maid. 

—Shakespeare. 

Coverley, Sir Roger de, the name of one of the members‘of the 
imaginary club under whose direction the Spectator was pro¬ 
fessedly edited. * 

Cradle of Liberty, a popular name given to Faneuil Hall,. 
Boston, Mass., celebrated as the place where the orators of the 
Revolution roused the people to resist British oppression. 

Crane, Ichabod, the name of a credulous Yankee school¬ 
master, whose adventures are related in the “ Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow,” in Irving’s “Sketch-Book.” 

Crapaud, Johnny, a sportive designation of a Frenchman. 

Crispin, the patron saint of shoemakers. 

Cuttle, Captain, a character in Dickens’ “Dombeyand Son.” 
His most famous saying is, “ When found, make a note of.” 

Darby and Joan, the hero and heroine of a ballad, “The 
Happy Old Couple.” 

Deans, Effie, Scott’s “Heart of Midlothian.” 

Della Cruscans, or Della Crusca School, a number of senti¬ 
mental poetasters of both sexes, at the end of last century. 

Delta, David M. Mair, a Scotch physician and poet. 

Diddler, Jeremy, a character in Kenny’s farce of “ Raising 
the Wind.” 

Dixie, an imaginary place, somewhere in the Southern states, 
celebrated in popular negro melody, as a perfect paradise of ease 
and enjoyment. 

Don Juan, a mythical personage who figures largely in drama, 
melodrama and romance as the type of refined libertinism. 

Don Quixote, the hero of a celebrated romance of that name 
by Cervantes. 

Drapier, M. B., a pseudonym under which Swift wrote 
certain celebrated and remarkable letters addressed to the people 
of Ireland. 

Dulcinea del Toboso , the mistress of Don Quixote. 


456 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


El Dorado (the golden land), a name given by the Spaniards 
to an imaginary country, supposed, in the sixteenth century, to 
be situated in the interior of South America, between the rivers 
Orinoco and Amazon, and abounding in gold and all manner of 
precious stones. 

Elia , a pseudonym under which Charles Lamb wrote a series 
of celebrated essays. 

Eliot, George, the literary cognomen of Mary A. Evans, 
afterwards Mrs. Cross; author of “Adam Bede,” “Felix Holt,” 
“Daniel Deronda,” etc. 

Emerald Isle , Ireland. 

English Roscius, David Garrick (1716-1779), the most emi¬ 
nent actor of his day. 

Emil, a beautiful character in Tennyson's “Idyls of the 
King.” Emil is the Celtic form of animus, the soul. 

Eternal City, The, a popular and very ancient designation of 
Rome. 

Ettrich Shepherd, James Hogg, a Scottish poet (1772-1835). 

Ex-calibar, the name of Arthur's far-famed sword. 

Expounder of the Constitution, a title given to Daniel Web¬ 
ster (1782-1852). 

Fata Morgana, the name of a potent fairy celebrated in the 
tales of chivalry, and in the romantic poems of Italy. 

Father of Angling, Izak Walton, author of “The Complete 
Angler” (1593-1683). 

Father of History, a name given to Herodotus, the Greek 
historian, by Cicero. 

Father of Waters, a name given to the Mississippi on account 
of its great length (3160 miles), and the large number of its 
tributaries. 

Father Prout, a pseudonym adopted by Francis Mahoney. 

Faust, the hero and title of a celebrated drama of Goethe, 
the materials of which are drawn in part from the popular 
legends of Dr. Faustus. 

Fern, Fanny, Mrs..Sarah P. Parton (born 1811), a popular 
American authoress. 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


457 


Figaro, the liero of Beaumarchais’s celebrated comedies, “Le 
Barbier de Seville,” and “Le Mariage de Figaro.” 

Florimel , a character in Spenser’s “Faery Queen.” 

Flying Dutchman, the name given by sailors to a phantom 
ship, supposed to cruise in storms off the Cape of Good Hope. 

Frankenstein, a monster in Mrs. Shelley’s romance of that 
name, constructed by a young student of physiology, out of the 
horrid remnants of the church yard and dissecting room, and 
endued, apparently through the agency of galvanism, with a 
sort of spectral and convulsive life. 

Freischiltz (Ger. the freeshooter), the name of a legendary 
hunter or marksman, who, by entering into a compact with the 
Devil, procures balls, six of which infallibly hit, however great 
the distance, while the seventh, as one of the seven, belongs to 
the Devil, who directs it at his pleasure. 

Friar John, the name of one of the most celebrated charac¬ 
ters in Rabelais’s romance of “ Pantagruel.” 

Friar Tuck, one of the constant associates of Robinhood. 

Gamp, Sarah, a monthly nurse of the old gin-drinking type 
in Dickens’ “Martin Chuzzlewit.” 

Garden of England, County of Kent. 

Garden of the World, a name frequently given to the vast 
country comprising more than 1,200,000 square miles which is 
drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, a region of almost 
unexampled fertility. 

Gate of Tears, a literal translation of the word Bahebnandeh, 
the straits of which name were so called on account of the num¬ 
ber of shipwrecks which occur in them. 

Like some ill-destined bark that steers 
In silence through the Gate of Tears. 

— Moore. 

Genevieve, the heroine of a ballad by Coleridge. 

Giant Despair, in Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress.” 

Gil Bias , the title of a famous romance by Le Sage (1668- 
1747), and the name of the hero. 




458 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


Glasse, Mrs., the real or supposititious author of a cookery- 
book once very famous. 

Gog and Magog, popular names for two colossal statues in the 
Guildhall, London. 

Goodfelloiv , Robin, a kind of merry sprite, whose character 
and achievements are described in the well-known ballad begin¬ 
ning “From Oberonin Fairyland.” 

Great Unknown, a name given to the author of “ Waverley 
Novels,” which on their first appearance were published anony¬ 
mously. 

Grand Old Man, William Ewart Gladstone. Abbreviated 
G. 0. M. 

Grundy, Mrs., a person frequently referred to in Morton's 
comedy, “Speed the Plow,”'but not introduced as one of the 
dramatis personce. The solicitude of Dame Ashfield as to what 
will Mrs. Grundy say, has resulted in the proverb. 

Heep, Uriah, a hypocritical character in Dickens’ “David 
Copperfield.” He was a great deal too umble. 

Iago, a character in Shakespeare's “Othello.” “A being 
next to the Devil, and only not quite the Devil.” 

Ingoldsby, Thomas, a pseudonym adopted by the Rev. Rich¬ 
ard Barham (1788-1845), author of the well-known “Ingoldsby 
Legends.” 

Irish Agitator, an epithet applied to Daniel O’Connell (1775- 
1847), the leader of the political movements in Ireland for the 
emancipation of Roman Catholics from civil disabilities, and for 
the repeal of the act of the Union between Great Britain and 
Ireland, which was passed July 2, 1800. 

Iron Duke, a familiar title given to the Duke of Wellington. 

Jarndyce, a prominent figure in Dickens' “Bleak House.” 

Jew, The Wandering, an imaginary personage who owes his 
existence to a legend connected with the history of Christ's 
passion. As the Savior was on the way to the place of execution 
overcome with the weight of the cross, he wished to rest on a 
stone before the house of a Jew, whom the story calls Ahasuerus, 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


459 


who drove him away with curses. Jesus calmly replied, “Thou 
shalt Wander on the earth till I return.” The astonished Jew 
did not come to himself till the crowd had passed, and the streets 
were empty. Driven by fear and remorse he has since wandered 
according to the command of the Lord, from place to place, and 
has never yet been able to find a grave. According to another 
account he was Pontius Pilate’s porter. 

King Cole , a legendary king of Britain, who reigned, as the 
old chronicles inform us, in the third century after Christ. 
According to Robert of Gloucester he was the father of the cele¬ 
brated St. Helena. 

King Cotton , a popular personification of the great staple 
production of the Southern States. 

Kitchen Cabinet , a name sportively given to the Hon. Fran¬ 
cis P. Blair and the Hon. Amos Kendall, by the opponents of 
President Jackson’s administration. Blair was the editor of 
The Globe, the organ of the president, and Kendall was one of 
the principal contributors to the paper. As it was necessary 
for Jackson to consult frequently with these gentlemen, and as, 
to avoid observation, they were accustomed when they called on 
him to go in by the back door, the Whig party styled them, in 
derision, the Kitchen Cabinet. 

Knickerbocker Diedrich, the imaginary author of a humor¬ 
ous fictitious “ History of New York,” by Washington Irving. 

Lake Poets or Lake School, a name applied to Wordsworth, 
Southey and Coleridge, but made to include Lamb, Loyd and 
Wilson. It arose from Wordsworth and the others having their 
residence in the Cumberland Lake district. 

Learned Blacksmith, an epithet sometimes applied to Elihu 
Burritt (b. 1811) who began life as a blacksmith, and afterward 
distinguished himself as a linguist. 

Lenore, the heroine of a popular ballad composed by Gott¬ 
fried August Biviger (1748-1794) the German lyric poet. The 
subject of this ballad is an old tradition, which recounts the 
ride of a spectral lover, who reappears to his mistress after death. 


460 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


and carries her on horseback behind him, “a fiction not less 
remarkable for its extensive geographical discrimination than for 
its bold imaginative character.” This name was also adopted 
by Edgar A. Poe, in his ballad entitled “The Raven.” 

Light-Horse Harry , a sobriquet popularly conferred upon 
General Henry Lee (1756-1818), a gallant American cavalry 
officer in the war of the Revolution in allusion to his rapid and 
daring movements in battle, particularly during the campaign 
of the Carolinas. 

Little Corporal, a familiar appellation conferred on General 
Bonaparte immediately after the battle of Lodi (1796) by the 
soldiers under his command on account of his juvenile appear¬ 
ance and surpassing bravery. The name continued in use even 
after he became emperor. 

Little Nell, a child in Dickens’ “Old Curiosity Shop,” of a 
sweet and winning nature, who, on account of her grandfather’s 
passion for gambling, goes through many trials with uncom¬ 
plaining constancy. 

Mad Anthony, a sobriquet of Major-General Anthony Wayne 
(1745-1796), distinguished for his military skill and impetuous 
bravery in the war of the Revolution. 

Madman of the North, Charles XII. of Sweden; so called from 
his rash and impetuous character. 

Magi, The Three .—The “ wise men from the East ” who 
came to Bethlehem bringing gifts to Jesus. Magi is the Latin 
for “wise men” in the Vulgate translation of the Bible. The 
traditional names of the three Magi are Melchior, represented 
as an old man with a long beard offering gold; Jasper, a beard¬ 
less youth who offers frankincense; Balthazar, a black or Moor, 
with a large spreading beard, who tenders myrrh. They are the 
patron saints of travelers. 

Malaprop, Mrs., a character in Sheridan’s comedy of “The 
Rivals,” noted for her blindness in the use of words. The name 
is obviously from the French mat a propos, unapt, illtimed. 

Mason and Dixon 9 s Line , a name given to the southern bound- 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


461 


ary line of the free state of Pennsylvania which formerly sepa¬ 
rated it from the slave states of Maryland and Virginia. It was 
run, with the exception of about twenty-two miles, by Charles 
Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathematicians 
and surveyors between November 15, 1763, and December 26, 
1767. During the excited debate in congress in 1820, on the 
question of excluding slavery from Missouri, the eccentric John 
Randolph, of Roanoke, made great use of this phrase, which 
was caught up and re-echoed by every newspaper in the land, 
and thus gained a celebrity which it retains. 

Mill-boy of the Slashes. —Henry Clay (1777-1852), a distin¬ 
guished orator and statesman, born in the neighborhood of a 
place in Hanover county, Va., known as the Slashes (a local name 
for a low, swampy country), where there was a mill to which he 
was often sent on errands as a boy. 

Missouri Compromise , a name given to an act of congress 
passed in 1820, and which was intended to reconcile the two 
great sections that were struggling, the one to promote, the 
other to hinder, the extension of slavery. By this act it was 
determined that Missouri should be admitted into the Union as a 
slave-holding slate, but that slavery should never be established 
in any state formed in the future lying to the north of latitude 
36 deg. 30 min. 

Modern Athens , a name often given to Edinburgh, Scot¬ 
land. 

Mormon , the last of a pretended Hebrew line of prophets 
existing among a race of Israelites, who are fabled to have emi¬ 
grated from Jerusalem to America about 600 years b. c. This 
imaginary prophet is said to have written the book called “The 
Book of Mormon,” which contains doctrines upon which the 
“Mormons,” or “ Latter-day Saints” found their faith; but the 
real author was one Solomon Spalding (1761-1816), an invet¬ 
erate scribbler who had been in early life a clergyman. Joseph 
Smith obtained the work, and claimed it as a direct revelation 
from heaven, and so began the propagation of “Mormonism.” 


462 PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 

Murnbo Jumbo, a strange bugbear, common to all the Man- 
dingo towns, and resorted to by the negroes as a means of disci¬ 
pline. 

Munchausen , the fictitious author of a book of travels filled 
with the most outrageous lies. 

Mutual Admiration Society , a nickname popularly given in 
Paris, to the “ Societe d* Observation Medical.” It is employed 
in a general way of any knot of persons who are given to lauding 
one another absurdedly. 

North, Christopher, or Kit, Professor John Wilson (1785- 
1854), author of “Noctes Ambrosianae,” etc. 

Nut-brown Maid, the subject of a celebrated ballad of the 
same name of uncertain date and origin. 

Old Bullion, Colonel Thomas H. Benton (1782-1852), a dis¬ 
tinguished statesman, on account of his advocacy of a gold and 
silver currency as the true remedy for the financial embarrass¬ 
ments in which the United States were involved, after the expi¬ 
ration of the charter of the national bank, and as the only proper 
medium for government disbursement and receipts. 

Old Grimes, the subject of a popular ballad by Albert G. 
Greene. 

Old Hickory , conferred on General Andrew Jackson in 1813, 
by the soldiers under his command. 

Old Hunkers, a name applied to the ultra-conservative por¬ 
tion of the democratic party especially in the state of New York. 

Old Man Eloquent , an expression made use of by Milton in 
his tenth sonnet, an allusion to Isocrates, and very generally 
applied in America to John Quincy Adams, sixth president of 
the United States. 

Old Public Functionary, sometimes applied to James 
Buchanan, fifteenth president of the United States. He first 
applied the expression to himself in his annual message to con¬ 
gress in 1859. Sometimes humorously abbreviated 0. P. F. 

Old Style Jonathan, an assumed name of Washington Irving. 

Old Wagon, the frigate “ United States,” launched at Phila- 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


463 


delphia, 1797. Nicknamed during the war of 1812, from her 
slow-sailing qualities. 

* Paper King, a name given to John Law (1670-1729) the 
celebrated financial projector. 

Partington, Mrs., an imaginary old lady whose remarkable 
sayings have been recorded by the American humorist, B. P. 
Shill aber. 

Peeping Son of Coventry, an epithet to a person of ungovern¬ 
able inquisitiveness. . 

Pennsylvania Farmer , a surname given to John Dickinson 
(1732-1808) statesmen and author. 

Philosopher of' Ferney, Voltaire. 

Poets 9 Corner, an angle in the south transept of Westminster 
Abbey, London; popularly so called from the fact that it con¬ 
tains the tombs of Chaucer, Spencer, and other eminent English 
poets, and memorial tablets, busts, statues, or monuments to 
many who are buried in other places. 

Poor Richard, the feigned author of a series of almanacs, 
(commenced in 1732 and continued for twenty-five years), really 
written by Benjamin Franklin. 

Poor Rohm, the imaginary author of a celebrated series of 
almanacs first published in 1661 or 1662, said to have originated 
with Robert Herrick, the poet. 

Peter Porcupine, William Cobbett (1762-1835), a volumi¬ 
nous political writer. 

Pry, Paul, the title of a well-known comedy by John Pool, 
and the name of its principal character. 

Pure Simon , the name of a Pennsylvania Quaker in Mrs. 
Centlivre's comedy, “ A Bold Stroke for a Wife.” 

Rail-Splitter, The, Abraham Lincoln, who is said to have 
supported himself during one winter by splitting rails for a 
farmer. 

Rare Ben, applied to Ben Jonson (1574-1637), the dramatic 
poet. 

St. Nicholas, the patron saint of boys. He is said to have 


464 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


been bishop of Myra, and to have died in the year 326. The 
young were universally taught to revere him, and the popular 
fiction which represents him as the bearer of presents to children 
on Christmas eve is well known. He is the Santa Claus of the 
Dutch. 

Salt River , an imaginary river up which defeated political 
parties are supposed to be sent to oblivion. 

Sam , a popular, synonym for the know-nothing, or native 
American party. 

Sand 9 Georges, Madame Dudevant, French authoress. 

Seven Champions of Christendom. — St. George, the patron 
saint of England ; St. Denis, of France; St. James, of Spain; 
St. Anthony, of Italy; St. Andrew, of Scotland; St. Patrick, 
of Ireland ; and St. David, of Wales. 

Seven Sleepers. — An ancient Christian legend tells that on 
the Decian persecution seven noble youths of Ephesus fled to 
a cavern for refuge, but were discovered and walled in; but 
having been made to fall asleep they were thus preserved for 
nearly two centuries. Their names are given as Maximan, 
Malchus, Martiman, Denis, John, Serapion, and Constantine. 
The church has consecrated the 27th of June to their memory. 

Seven Wise Men of Greece .— They belong to the sixth century 
before Christ. Their names are Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, 
Periander, Cleobulus, and Thales. They were the authors of 
the celebrated mottoes inscribed in later days in the Delphian 
temple, “ Know thyself” (Solon); “ Consider the end” (Chilo); 
“Know thy opportunity” (Pittacus); “Most Men are bad” 
(Bias); “ Nothing is impossible to industry” (Periander); “Avoid 
excess” (Cleobulus); “Suretyship is the precursor of ruin” 
(Thales.) - 

Seven Wonders of the World .—The Pyramids of Egypt, the 
Pharos of Alexandria, the Walls and Hanging Gardens of Baby¬ 
lon, the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of the Olym¬ 
pian Jupiter, the Mausoleum of Artemisia, the Colossus of 
Rhodes. 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


465 


Sharp , BecTcy. — A clever and unscrupulous adventuress in 
Thackerey’s “Vanity Fair.” 

Sick Man of the East . The Turkish Empire. 

Single-speech Hamilton . A name given to William G. Ham¬ 
ilton (1729-1796), an English statesman. 

Starvation Dundas. Henry Dundas, the first Lord Melville, 
so-called from having first introduced the word starvation into 
the English in a speech in Parliament. 

Stonewall Jackson. —Thomas Jonathan Jackson (1824-1863). 
At the battle of Bull Run July 21, 1861, Confederate General 
Lee, trying to rally his men, said, “There is Jackson standing 
like a stone wall!” Hence the sobriquet, and Jackson’s brigade 
was called the Stonewall Brigade. 

Sweet Singer of the Temple. —A name given to George Herbert 
(1593-1633), author of “The Temple,” a singular sweet and 
clever poet, many of whose verses are fresh as a dew-laden rose. 

Tartuffe. — A common name for hypocritical pretenders to 
religion. 

Teazle , Lady. — The heroine of Sheridan’s comedy, ^The 
School for Scandal.” 

Tlieleme , Abbey of. — The name of an imaginary building in 
Rabelais’s “Gargantua,” given by Grangousier to Friar John: 

“ Now in this Abbey of ThelSme 
Which realizes the fairest dream 
That ever dozing bull-frog had.” 

— Lowell . 

Thunderer , The. — A popular appellation of the London 
Times. Originally given to it on account of the powerful 
articles contributed to its columns by its editor, Edward Sterling. 

Twelve Apostles of Ireland, TJie.— A name given to twelve 
Irish prelates of the sixth century, who appear to have formed a 
sort of corporation. 

Uncle Sam.— A vulgar name for the United. States govern¬ 
ment. 

Underground Railroad, The.—A popular embodiment of the 

30 


466 


PSEUDONYMS OF EMINENT MEN. 


various ways in which fugitive slaves from the Southern states 
were assisted in escaping to the North or to Canada. 

Urban, Sylvanus, Gent .— The fictitious name under which 
the “Gentleman’s Magazine” is edited, and by which is ex¬ 
pressed its universality of town and country intelligence. 

Vermilion Sea .— A name formerly given to the Gulf of Cali¬ 
fornia on account of the red color of the infusoria it contains. 

Wagoner Boy, The. — lion. Thomas Corwin (born 1794), a 
distinguished statesman, who as a boy brought a wagon of pro¬ 
visions to Harrison’s army, and remained with them. 

Whisky Insurrection, The .—An outbreak in Western Penn¬ 
sylvania resulting from an attempt to impose an excise law 
passed in 1791, which imposed duties on domestic distilled 
liquors. It was finally suppressed by an armed force under 
General Henry Lee. 





CHAPTER XXXVl. 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPEN¬ 
DIUM. 


CADEMIA, a pleasant and finely wooded spot in the 
vicinity of Athens, which derived its name from the 
proprietor, Academus, and became renowned as a 
spot where Plato taught philosophy to his pupils. 
These were thence termed Academies. Academy is 
bestowed, as a name, on seats of learning and educa¬ 
tion at the present day. 

Achates, a follower of iEneas, so faithful and 
devoted, that his name has become proverbially 
significant of constancy and friendship. 

Achilles , son of Peleus, King of Thessaly, by the 
sea-goddess Thetis, educated by Chiron, a learned 
centaur (half man, half horse). Achilles is represented as having 
become perfect in all the accomplishments of his heroic age, and 
had just attained the prime of youthful manhood when the 
princes of Greece went to war with Troy. In his youthful days 
Thetis had rendered her son invulnerable by dipping him in the 
river Styx; but the tendon of the heel by which she held him— 
hence called the tendo Achilles —was left unsecured; and Paris, 
the brother of Hector, slew the chief, by a wound in that spot, 
thus fulfilling the decree of fate. Strength, swiftness, and 
beauty of person are the leading characteristics assigned by 
Homer to Achilles. 

Actceon, a huntsman, who beheld Diana bathing, and changed 
by the chaste goddess into a stag, was torn to pieces by his own 
dogs. The “ fate of Actaeon” means the ruin of man by his own 

467 








468 


CLASSICAL AKD MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


friends, or from unwillingly getting to know dangerous secrets. 

Adonis , a youth greatly beloved by Venus, who on his being 
gored to death by a a wild boar converted him into the flower 
anemone. 

AEneas , a Trojan prince, son of Anchises and Venus, who on 
the fall of Troy is said to have wandered with a small band 
into Italy, and founded the Roman empire. Virgil made this 
the subject of his great national epic. 

AEolus, the god of the winds. The “ JEolian harp " takes its 
name from him. 

AEscula'piuSy a personage honored as the god of medicine, and 
reputed to be the son of Apollo by a mortal nymph. 

AEsop, a native of Phrygia, renowned as a writer of fables. 

Agamemnon, the leader of the Greeks in the expedition 
against Troy. 

Aglaia, one of the three graces. 

Agniy the Hindu god of fire. 

Ahriman, the evil principle in the religion of ancient Persia. 

Ajax, famous in the war of Troy ; he became mad and slew 
himself. 

Alcestis, wife of King Admetus, who voluntarily died for her 
husband’s sake, and was brought again from the regions of the 
dead by Hercules. 

Alcibiades, an Athenian noble, beautiful in person, and of 
rare talent, but dissolute ; a pupil of Socrates ; and in later life 
a splendid naval and military commander. 

Alecto, one of the three furies. 

Ammon , a Libyan divinity, adopted by the Greeks and identi¬ 
fied with Jupiter. 

Amphion , an individual of semi-divine origin, who founded 
Thebes, and is said to have excelled so much in music as to have 
moved the stones to take their places in the structures of the new 
city. 

Andromache , wife of Hector, celebrated by Homer for her 
conjugal affection and domestic virtues. 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


469 


Andromeda, daughter of an Ethiopian king, chained to a 
rock and exposed to a sea monster, but rescued by Perseus, whose 
wife she becomes. 

Antceus , son of earth and Sea, a Lybian giant, slain by Her¬ 
cules. 

Apelles , a native of the isle of Cos, usually regarded as the 
greatest of the ancient painters. 

Apollo , son of Jujffter and* Latona, god of the sun, music, 
medicine, and the fine arts. A youth of fine form is often styled 
an Apollo, as the god is usually pictured as a beardless youth, 
holding a bow or lyre. 

Arcadia, a pastoral region in the center of the Peleponnesus, 
so much distinguished for natural beauty and for the happy and 
simple life of its people, that the word has become proverbial. 

Argo, a famous ship of antiquity, which is said to have car¬ 
ried Jason and a renowned body of Greeks — called the Argo¬ 
nauts— to Colchis, a district on the eastern shore of the Black 
sea, in search of the Golden Fleece. 

Argus, a being with a hundred eyes, set by Juno to watch an 
earthly mistress of Jupiter, and slain by Mercury. A jealous 
custodian often receives the name of Argus. 

Ariadne gave the clue to Theseus, shut up in the celebrated 
Cretan labyrinth, by which he found his way out. “The clue 
of Ariadne ” has become a byword. 

Aroin, a famous musician, who, when in peril of his life at 
sea, played so sweetly that some grateful dolphins bore him safely 
ashore. 

Aristides, a statesman and warrior of Athens, whose conduct 
earned for him the title of The Just. 

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher of the first rank, born at 
Stagira, in Macedon, and hence called The Stagirite. 

Aspasia, a celebrated courtesan of Athens, mistress, and 
ultimately wife, of Pericles, and eminent for her intellectual 
accomplishments. 

Astrcea, the goddess of justice. 


470 CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 

Atalanta , a princess of the isle of Seyro, of great bea,uty/and 
determinedly adverse to matrimony. As she excelled in running, 
she consented to wed him who foiled her in a trial of speed, and 
defeated all her lovers, until one came forward who was favored 
by the goddess of love. From that deity he received three apples, 
and was directed to throw them down at intervals in the race. 
The stratagem succeeded. Atalanta could not refrain from 
stopping to pick up the apples, and the lover obtained her hand. 
But from subsequent disrespect to Jupiter, the couple were 
changed into a lion and lioness. The race of Atalanta is often 
alluded to. 

Atlas , a Titan, or giant, who warred against Jupiter, and was 
changed into a mountain. 

Aurora , the goddess of the morning. 

Avator, the descent of a deity upon earth in Hindu mythol¬ 
ogy. 

Avernus, a lake in Campania, believed to be the entrance to 
the infernal regions. 

Bacchus , the god of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele. 

Bucephalus , a horse tamed by Alexander the Great in youth, 
which became so renowned for bearing him on the field of battle 
as to give a common name to all animals of its species. 

Cadmus , a prince of Phoenicia, who generally receives the 
credit of inventing letters, or at least of introducing them into 
Greece. 

Calliope , one of the muses. 

Calypso, a beautiful goddess who, according to Homer, dwelt 
on an island of the earth, and received Ulysses hospitably as he 
wandered home from Troy. 

Cassandra, a Trojan princess, who is said to have received 
the gift of prophecy from Apollo. 

Castalia, a Parnassian fountain, sacred to the Muses. 

Castor, son of Leda, whom the enamored god Jupiter is 
fabled to have wooed in the form of a swan. Leda bore at once 
two sons and two daughters : Castor, Pollux, Clytemnestra, and 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 471 

Helena, of whom the second and fourth were deemed children of 
Jupiter, and the other two of the husband of Leda. Pollux on 
being elevated to a star, exhibited his love for Castor by seeking 
for the latter a share of his immortality. 

Catiline , a noble Roman of great talents, but infamous char¬ 
acter and habits. 

Cato , a name borne by several illustrious Romans. Cato, 
surnamed the Censor, was famous for his valor, temperance, 
wisdom and eloquence. He mastered the Greek language when 
eighty years of age. He committed suicide after reading “ Plato 
on the Immortality of the Soul.” 

Catullus , a Roman poet, whose pieces have much sweetness 
and feeling, though occasionally marked by immorality. 

Centauri , a monstrous people of Thessaly, described as having 
the head, chest and arms of a man, placed on the trunk of a 
horse. The first use of horses for riding seems to have originated 
the fable of the Centaurs. 

Cerberus, a dog with three heads, guardian of the infernal 
gate. Watch-dogs, and even guardian bipeds, frequently receive 
this name. 

Ceres, the daughter of Saturn and Vesta, and goddess of corn 
and harvests. 

Chaos, the rude, shapeless mass composing, according to 
the ancients, the yet unformed universe. 

Charon , the ferryman who rowed the dead over the river 
Styx. As the boatman asked a fare, it was customary for thfe 
ancients to place a small coin under the tongue of the dead. 

Charyhdis, a deep whirlpool in the Sicilian seas, opposite to 
the rock Scylla. The combined dangers of both led to the say¬ 
ing— Incidisin Scyllam, cupiens vitare Charybdim : “Shunning 
Charybdis you on Scylla strike/’ The proverb has the same 
sense as, “ Between the devil and the deep sea.” 

Chimcera, a fabled monster killed by Bellerophon, which had 
a triple head that breathed flame. Any monstrous thing of 
fancy is now called “achimaera.” 


472 CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 

Cicero, Rome’s most famous orator. His eloquence saved 
Rome from the tender mercies of Catiline, and he was termed 
by the people the father of his country. He was, however, after¬ 
wards driven into exile and finally murdered, at the instigation 
of Antony. 

Cincinnatus, an illustrious Roman, who was taken from the 
plow, which he left with regret, to serve and save his endan¬ 
gered country. His task fulfilled, he again contentedly retired 
to his farm, 

Circe a witch of semi-divine origin, whose irresistible en¬ 
chantments drew many into her power, only to be changed, 
after a short career of voluptuousness, into filthy swine. Circe 
is evidently an emblem of debasing pleasure. 

Cleopatra, whose surpassing beauty enslaved Mark Antony, 
and led to his ruinous contention with Caesar Augustus. 

Clio, the Muse of history. 

Clotho, one of the fates, who held the distaff from which 
was spun the thread of life. 

Carydon , a name in one of Virgil’s pastorals, often applied 
to shepherds. 

Charyphaeus , a title formerly given to the leaders of choral 
bands. 

Croesus, a king of Lydia, supposed to be the richest of man¬ 
kind. 

Cupid, god of Love, and son of Venus, queen of beauty. 

• Cyclops, a race of one-eyed giants, who acted as assistants 
to the smith-god Vulcan, and devoured human beings. 

Dcedalus, an Athenian of great skill in the mechanical and 
fine arts, to whom some ascribe the invention of the wedge, the 
axe, the wimble, and the level. He is also said to have con¬ 
structed the labyrinth at Crete. He is the nominal prototype 
of all ingenious mechanics. 

Damocles, a courtier, who having loudly flattered Disnysius 
of Sicily, on the score of his wealth and greatness, was placed 
for a time, by way of trial, on the tyrant’s throne. Gazing 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 473 

with delight on the splendor around him, he chanced to look 
up, when he saw, suspended above his head, by a single hair, a 
naked sword ! Instantly his pleasure vanished. This is a stock 
illustration of the perils of greatness. 

Damon and Pythias, two friends o^ sucn constancy, that 
when the former was doomed to die, and sought for a respite, 
that he might go home and settle his affairs, the latter offered 
his life as a security for the return of. the other. Damon re¬ 
turned, even to his friend’s regret. The scene between them 
was so moving that it led to a pardon. 

Danae, the daughter of a king of Argos, was shut up in a 
tower because it was foretold that a son of hers should kill his 
grandfather. The god Jupiter, however, introduced himself in 
the form of a golden shower and Danae bore to him Perseus, 
with whom she was exposed at sea in a slight bark, and who 
afterwards accidentally killed his grandfather with a quoit. 

Danaides, the fifty daughters of king Danaus, who, to pre¬ 
vent the fulfillment of an oracle of fatal import, caused them to 
murder their husbands. All obeyed but one; and, for the 
crime, they were condemned perpetually to the fruitless task of 
filling a sieve with water, in the infernal regions. 

Daphne, a nymph, who, when flying from the enamored 
pursuit of Apollo, was converted into a laurel tree. 

Democritus, a personage called the “ Laughing Philosopher,’ 9 
from his deeming it better to smile than weep at the follies of 
mankind. 

Demosthenes, an Athenian, and the greatest of the ancient 
orators. He had originally a stammer, of which he cured him¬ 
self by practicing speaking with pebbles in his mouth; to rise 
above the turbulence of a popular assembly, be haranged on the 
sea-shore during storms; he studied gesture and delivery before 
a mirror, and he was a diligent student of eloquence and learn¬ 
ing. The greatest orators have been at least as consistent 
believers in hard work as in their native powers of genius. 

Deucalion, a prince of Thessaly, who with his wife Pyrrha 


474 CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


escaped from a great deluge, said to have occurred in their time. 
The vessel rested on Parnassus, and Deucalion, directed by an 
oracle how to repeople the earth, threw stones over his shoulder, 
which instantly became men ; Pyrrha did the same, and women 
were formed. 

Diana , sister of Apollo,- goddess of hunting, and in heaven 
called Luna, or the Moon. 

Diogenes , the type of all sour, snarling philosophers. 

Dionysius (the elder), tyrant of Sicily. He constructed a cave 
called “ The Ear of Dionysius,” which was of such a form that 
every word uttered by his prisoners in an adjoining prison could 
be heard by him. Dionysius, his son and successor, was so 
cruel that he was finally driven from his throne* and compelled 
to teach school in Corinth for a living. Fallen despots are often 
compared to him. 

Draco , a lawyer at Athens, whose statutes were so severe that 
they were said to be written in blood. Harsh edicts are often 
compared to them. 

Echo , a nymph, whose powers of speech, as a punishment for 
prating, were limited to the answering of questions.. Falling 
afterwards in love with Narcissus, that youth's cruelty caused 
her to pine away, and she was changed into a stone, which still 
retains the power of speech. 

Endymion, a youth of Latmos, beloved of the Moon. 

Epicurus , a celebrated philosopher, whose name has most 
unfairly become synonomous with a sensualist. He himself 
lived on barley-cake, and water from the spring. 

Europa, a beautiful woman to whom Jupiter appeared in 
the shape of a bull, and she thoughtlessly mounting its back 
was carried off. She gave her name, it is further fabled, to the 
European .continent. 

Eurydice, wife of the poet and musician, Orpheus. When 
she died from the bite of a serpent, Orpheus was so deeply 
grieved that he ventured to seek her among the shades; and, 
having by his music drawn “ iron tears down Pluto's cheeks," 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


475 


was permitted by the infernal chief to take his wife back to 
earth, on condition that he did not turn to look at her till his 
arrival there. He violated the condition and lost her forever. 

Fauns ; these were minor rural deities painted as having the 
form of goats from the middle downwards, with the Corns and 
ears of the same animal. 

Flora, a goddess of the Roman Pantheon, who presided over 
flowers,^ gardens, orchards, vineyards, and was usually painted 
as crowned with flowers and holding the horn of plenty. She 
married Zephyrus, the god of the west wind, and received from 
him the gift of immortal youth. 

Fur ice, the three Furies, Alecto , Megcera and Tisiphone. 
These sisters were supposed, to be the ministers of divine ven¬ 
geance, punishing mortal's on earth both with external evils and 
the sting of conscience, and inflicting continual torments on the 
bad in the infernal regions. 

Galatea, a sea-nymph, in love with Acis, whom Polyptemus, 
the Cyclop, killed through jealousy. 

Ganymedes, a beautiful Phrygian youth, carried away by 
Jupiter to be cup-bearer to the gods in place of Hebe. An eagle 
conveyed him, and he is usually pictured on the back of that 
bird. 

Gorgon, a name specially applied to Medusa, one of the three 
sisters who had wings of gold, and but one eye for use among the 
three. The “Gorgon’s Head,” or “Medusa’s Head,” is frequently 
alluded to as significant of an object of terror, because it was 
encircled with snakes and turned the beholder to stone. 

Haley one, a princess who grieved so deeply for the loss of her 
spouse at sea that she was sent to that element out of pity, 
and changed into a kingfisher. Being favored with seven days* 
calm for brooding, the phrase of “halcyone days” came to 
denote a time of peaceful happiness. 

Hannibal, a famous Carthaginian, who when a boy was made 
to avow eternal hatred to Rome. His crossing the Alps is 
regarded as a wonderful military feat. He nearly destroyed 


476 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


the Romans, but was eventually overcome by Scipio Africanus. 

Hebe, daughter of Jupiter and Juno, and the goddess of youth; 
for which, in its beautiful forms, her name is a synonym. She 
was the first cup-bearer of the gods. 

Hecate , the goddess supposed to preside over enchantments. 

Hector , the most valiant of the sons of Priam, and ultimately 
killed by Achilles. 

Helena, the most beautiful woman of her age, whose abduction 
from her husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta, by the Trojan 
prince, Paris, caused the siege and fall of Troy. Helen was one 
of the children of Leda by Jupiter. She was ultimately restored 
to Menelaus. 

Helicon , a mountain in Rocalia, sacred to the Muses, who had 
a temple there. 

Hercules, the most famous personage of the heroic age of 
Greece. He is the type of physical power in painting and sculpt¬ 
ure, and is drawn with a mighty club in his hand. 

Hero, a fair priestess of Venus, who, when her lover Leander 
perished in swimming the Hellespont, threw herself into the sea. 

Herodotus , a famed historian of Greece, generally styled the 
“ Father of History.” 

Hesperides , three celebrated nymphs, who, with a dragon for 
a watch-dog, were entrusted with the care of Juno’s golden 
apples, placed in a garden in the neighborhood of Mount Atlas. 
Hercules in his labors carried off some of this much prized fruit. 

Hippocrates, a physician of the isle of Cos, whose existing 
writings prove him to have made wonderful advances for his time 
in the art of medicine, and whose name is yet often alluded to. 

Hippocrene, a fountain on Mount Helicon, the waters of which 
are said to have given inspiration to poets. 

Homer, the greatest of epic poets, born, according to the most 
probable accounts, in the isle of Chios. His name signifies “ the 
blind,” and he is said not only to have suffered under this calam¬ 
ity, but to have been a wanderer, dependent on his minstrelsy 
for his daily bread. 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 477 

Horace, a Roman poet of the age of Augustus, whose lyrics 
and satires abound in maxims that are often quoted. 

Hygeia, the goddess of health, daughter of iEsculapius; hence 
the term hygiene for the art of preserving health, and the adjec¬ 
tive hygienic . 

Iphigenia , daughter of Agamemnon. That chief, while at 
Aulis on his way to Troy, was detained by contrary winds, and 
was told that only by his sacrifice of his daughter to Diana could 
the Greek fleet proceed on its course. He reluctantly consented; 
but when Iphigenia was brought to the altar she suddenly disap¬ 
peared, and a goat appeared in her place. Diana carried her off, 
says the story, to be a priestess at Taurica. 

Iris , the messenger of the queen of heaven, and the goddess 
of the rainbow. 

Juno, sister and wife of Jupiter, and queen of the mytholog¬ 
ical heaven of Greece and Rome. 

Jupiter, or Zeus, son of Saturn and Ops; king of heaven and 
ruler of all the gods. 

Laocoon, a Trojan prince, priest of Apollo, who, having 
offended Neptune, was strangled with several of his sons by two 
enormous serpents which issued from the sea. This fable has 
been immortalized in sculpture. 

Lares et Penates, household gods of the Romans. 

Leonidas, a renowned Spartan, who, when the Persians invaded 
Greece with several millions of men, took post at the pass of 
Thermopylae, with no more than three hundred men, and, self- 
devoted to death, defended it for three days, until he and all his 
companions perished, after having made fearful havoc among the 
enemy. 

Livy, one of the most illustrious of the Roman historians. 

Mars, the god of war, son of Jupiter and Juno. 

Mausolus, king of Corea, so dearly beloved by his wife that at 
his death she drank up his ashes and erected to him a monu¬ 
ment so splendid as to be deemed one of the seven wonders of the 
world; hence mausoleum . 


478 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


Mercury, or Hermes, son of Jupiter and Maia, and herald of 
the gods!" He presided over oratory, commerce, thieving, and 
conducted the spirits of men to the infernal regions. 

Minerva , goddess of wisdom, war, and the arts and sciences, 
who sprang, completely armed, from Jupiter’s brain, without a 
mother. 

Minos, a famous king and lawgiver of Crete, who for his 
equity was appointed one of the judges of the spirits of men after 
his decease. 

Mnemosyn6, the goddess of memory, and mother of the nine 
Muses by Jupiter. 

Momus, the god of fun and pleasantry; jester-general and 
satirist of the mythological heavens. 

Morpheus, son and minister of Somnus, the god of sleep; he 
visited mortals in dreams. 

Naiads, certain minor deities, who presided over springs, 
fountains and rivers. 

Nemesis, the goddess of vengeance. 

Neptune, god of the sea. 

Nestor, king of Pylos, who, at a very advanced age, went to 
the Trojan war, and is so highly lauded by Homer for his elo¬ 
quence that his name has become a synonym for a wise and ven¬ 
erable old man. 

Oheron, king of fairies. 

Olympus, a mountain in Thessaly, which the ancients believed 
reached to heaven, and which they made the home of the gods. 

Pan, the god of shepherds, huntsmen, and rustics. He in¬ 
vented the flute with seven reeds. 

Pandora, the first woman, according to some ancient writers. 
Out of her box came all the ills that have afflicted mankind. 

Plato, a great philosopher of the highest genius. 

Plutarch, a Greek historical biographer. 

Pluto, one of the sons of Saturn and king of the infernal 
regions. 

Polyhymnia, the muse of singing and rhetoric. 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


479 


Pomona , a Roman deity who had charge of gardens^nd fruit 
trees* 

Pompey, called “the Great;” a Roman who made vast con¬ 
quests; married the daughter of Julius Caesar; was overthrown by 
Caesar at Pharsalia, and having fled to Egypt was basely mur¬ 
dered. 

Praxiteles , a native of Cnidus; famous for his skill in statu¬ 
ary. 

Priam, king of Troy, an aged man when the Greek princes 
besieged and took his city. 

Procrustes , a robber-chief of Attica, who bound travelers 
down to a bed, cutting off their limbs or stretching them out, so 
that they might exactly fit the couch; hence the phrase “a Pro¬ 
crustean bed.” 

Prometheus , one of the Titanic race; famed for his knowl¬ 
edge and address, and capable of deceiving Jupiter himself. To 
punish a fraud put upon him, Jupiter having taken away fire 
from mankind, Prometheus climbed the heavens and regained the 
element by theft. Jupiter still more provoked sent down Pan¬ 
dora with a box of ills, but Prometheus was too cautious to accept 
the gift. The supreme deity, however, chastised him by chain¬ 
ing him to Mount Caucasus, and sent a vulture to feed perpetu¬ 
ally on his liver, which still remained undiminished. Hercules 
at length set the sufferer free. The stealing of the fire is sup¬ 
posed to refer to the discovery of its use. Prometheus is often 
referred to in literature, and Shelley, the poet, made the idea of 
him the theme of one of his greatest poems. 

Proserpine , the daughter of Ceres and wife of Pluto, permit¬ 
ted to spend half the year in heaven at her mother's entreaties. 
The changes of the moon are supposed to be indicated here. 
Proserpine was universally worshiped under the names of Lili- 
tina, Hecat6, and Libera. 

Proteus, a sea deity, who possessed the gift of prophecy, but 
was extremely difficult of access, and, unless properly chained, 
had the power of assuming different shapes to elude his question- 


480 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


ers. Proteus affords a favorite similitude to express a change of 
form or purpose 

Psyche , a beautiful nymph whom Cupid married, and long 
lived with in a state of bliss. Venus put her to death, but 
Jupiter in pity made her afterwards immortal. As Psyche 
means “the soul” it is easy to attach a pregnant meaning to 
this myth. Psyche is painted with the wings of a butterfly. 

Pygmalion , a sculptor of Cyprus, who, having made a beau¬ 
tiful ivory statue of a female, fell in love with his own work, and, 
by his prayers, moved Venus to animate it, 

Pylades, a prince of Phocis, bound so closely in the bands of 
friendship with Orestes , that they are cited as exemplars of that 
feeling in its strongest form. - 

Pythagoras , a celebrated philosopher of Samos, who taught 
the transmigration of souls, and even said he remembered what 
bodies he had occupied before. He made his pupils keep silence 
for many years. The greatness of his talents is shown by his 
assertion that the planets move round the sun as a center—an 
idea at that time considered infinitely ridiculous. 

Pylhia (Pythoness), the priestess of Apollo at Delphi, who, 
inspired by vapors of the earth, delivered, amid convulsive 
writhings, the oracles of the deity. 

Regulus, a Roman consul, who, in warring with Carthage, 
was taken prisoner, and afterwards sent home to negotiate 
peace. Aware of the reduced state of the enemy, Regulus 
advised his countrymen to continue the war. The noble hostage 
thus sealed his own fate, for he had promised to return to Carthage 
if peace was not obtained. He returned, true to his word, and 
after cruel tortures, was enclosed in a barrel full of spikes, and 
rolled down hill. Thus he died, but his name will never die. 
His unselfish devotion to his country, and his high sense of 
truthfulness and honor have immortalized it. 

Romulus and Remus , the two brothers who founded Rome, 
were fabled by their proud descendants to be the sons of Mars 
by a princess of Italy. They were exposed in infancy, but were 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


481 


saved and suckled by a she-wolf. The twins, on reaching 
manhood, resolved to found a city; but, for a trifling offense, 
Remus was slain by his brother. Romulus, however, with a 
band of fugitives and criminals founded Rome; and, as the 
neighboring tribes despised his followers, a plan was adopted by 
which mates were secured from the women of the Sabines. 
Romulus reigned thirty-nine years, and was then, so the fable 
goes, carried up to heaven. He reqeived divine honors after his 
death. 

Sallust, a Roman historian whose works are highly valued. 

Saturn , son of heaven and earth, and supreme ruler of the 
earth until dethroned by his son, Jupiter. 

Satyrs , minor deities of the country, shaped like goats inte¬ 
riorly, and having horns on their head, and long hair over the 
body. 

Scipio, the patronymic of an illustrious Roman family, one 
member of which, surnamed “ Africanus,” was the conqueror of 
Hannibal, at Zama. “ Ttie continence of Scipio,” a common 
phrase, had its origin in the refusal of Africanus to see a beau¬ 
tiful princess, who had fallen into his hands, lest the frailty of 
human nature should tempt him to take advantage of his power 
over her fate. 

Semiramis, a queen of Assyria, celebrated for her masculine 
strength of character, her warlike successes, and the magnificent 
buildings she constructed at Babylon. 

Sibyls, women inspired by the gods with the spirit of 
prophecy. 

Silenus, a son of Pan, and attendant on Bacchus, usually 
painted as a jolly, intoxicated old man, ridfng on an ass, and 
crowned with flowers. 

Sinoti, a Greek whose frauds before Troy have made his 
name a byword. 

Sirens, three sea-nymphs who lived on a small island near 
Sicily, and so charmed the passing voyager with their melodious 
voices, that he forgot all else, and died while listening. Ulysses, 

81 


482 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


in order to hear them safely, had the ears of his crew stuffed, 
and himself tied to the mast of the ship. He was enchanted 
with the music, but the crew would not obey his commands to 
stop, and thus he listened and yet lived. The disappointed 
syrens threw themselves into the sea. 

Sisyphus , a crafty prince of the heroic times of Greece, who, 
for some uncertain offense to the gods, was doomed in the infer¬ 
nal regions to roll a huge stone up a hill, whence it immediately 
descended, rendering his punishment perpetual. The hopeless 
toil of Sisyphus is often the theme of allusion and comparison. 

Socrates , the wisest, character, and one of the best of antiq¬ 
uity. He was born and lived in Athens, where, in an unpre¬ 
tending way he taught men to love virtue and cultivate knowl¬ 
edge. His opinions and actions, as recorded by his pupils, Plato 
and Xenophon, have filled posterity with admiration for him 
from whom they came. Socrates was at length accused by the 
ungrateful Athenians of offenses against religion, and died, 
according to his sentence, by drinking a cup of hemlock pre¬ 
sented to him. His last moments, spent in cheerful converse 
with his weeping friends, exhibit his character in the noblest 
light. 

Solon , one of the seven wise men of Greece, celebrated for 
the equity of the laws dictated by him to the Athenians. His 
fame for wisdom has caused men of similar repute to be called 
Solons. 

Sphinx , a monster with the head and chest of a woman, a 
dog’s body, a serpent’s tail, and the wings of a biid, sent by 
Juno to devastate Boeotia. An oracle told that the Sphinx 
would destroy herself on one of her enigmas being explained, and 
(Edipus, on being asked by her what animal walked on four legs 
in the morning, two at noon, and three m the evening, correctly 
answered “ man,” referring to infancy, manhood, and old age. 
The Sphinx thereupon killed herself on a rock. 

Stentor , a Greek whose voice, according to Homer, equaled 
those of fifty men combined, hence “ Stentorian.” 


CLASSICAL AHD MYTHOLOGICAL COHPEHDIUM. 483 

Stoics, a sect of philosophers founded by Zeno, who professed 
so grave and stern a morality that their designation has been 
applied to men who exhibit great powers of self-restraint and 
endurance. 

Styx, a cold and venomous river of the infernal regions, 
famous on account of the estimation in which it was held by the 
gods, who swore by it, and considered such oaths inviolable. 

Syhairs, a town on the bay of Tarentum in Italy, the inhab¬ 
itants of which were so effeminate that “ a Sybarite" has become 
an expression applied to any person of that character. 

Tacitus, a Roman annalist of the Empire, whose writings 
have been deemed models of excellence in historical literature. 

Tantalus, who for murdering his own son, and serving him 
up to Jupiter, to try his divine insight, was condemned to remain 
up to the neck in water, which ever fled from his lips as he 
sought to slake his perpetual thirst; hence the word “ tantalize,” 
now firmly fixed in various modern languages. 

Telemachus, son of Ulysses, who showed his filial piety by 
traveling in quest of his father, when the latter wandered from 
place to place on his way from Troy. Minerva accompanied the 
young prince, under the form of an old man Mentor, — whence 
a common name for a counselor and guide. 

Thespis, an ancient Greek poet, from whom, as the supposed 
inventor of tragedy, springs the phrase, “the Thespian art,” 
applied to the drama. 

Tihullus, a poet of Rome, whose graceful and chaste compo¬ 
sitions have gained for him a first place among elegiac bards. 

Timotheus, a poet and musician who followed the fortunes 
of Alexander the Great, and is celebrated by Dryden as “raising 
a mortal to the skies,” that is, flattering his master as a divinity. 

Tisiphone, one of the three Furies. 

Titan, the gigantic family of the Titans, descended from the 
Heaven and Earth, warred against Jupiter, and tossed mount¬ 
ains at him in their fury, but were subdued and condemned to 
a heavy punishment. 


484 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


Triptolemus, a native of Eleusis, whom Ceres sought to 
make immortal by laying him upon flames, to purge away the 
grossness of humanity; but his mother, through curiosity, 
peeped upon the proceedings, and, terrified at the sight, frus¬ 
trated the design. In compensation Ceres taught Triptolemus 
the art of agriculture, and gave him the honor of its dissemina¬ 
tion over the earth. 

Triton , a leading sea-god represented as half a man and half 
dolphin, and always seen blowing a horn. 

Tyrtceus , a Creek poet, usually held the type of martial 
verse writers. 

Ulysses , King of Ithaca, usually deemed the wisest of the 
Creeks who went to Troy. After the close of the siege of that 
city, during which he carried off its Palladium, and performed 
many feats of address and valor, he underwent many years of 
adventure, described in Homer's Odyssey , ere he reached his 
home. There he found his means wasted by suitors to his wife 
Penelope; but the tried soon slew or dispersed them all, and 
resumed his throne in peace. 

Urania, the muse who presides over astronomy. 

Venus , the goddess of love and beauty, and mother of 
Cupid; she sprang directly from the foam of the sea. Her 
power to charm depended on her cestus, or zone, and she was 
usually represented as sitting in a chariot drawn by doves 

Vesta, usually termed the mother of the deities, and pa¬ 
troness of the virgins called “Vestal,” who like modern sister¬ 
hoods of nuns retired from the world to live in sacred establish¬ 
ments. 

Virginia, daughter of the tribune Virginius, having attracted 
the licentious eye of Appius Claudius, then in power, he 
endeavored to get possession of her by proving her to be his 
slave; but her father defeated his nearly successful design by 
stabbing her with his own hands, to preserve her honor. 

Vulcan, son of Juno, and god of fire. 


CLASSICAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL COMPENDIUM. 


485 


Xantippe, wife of Socrates, and so great a shrew as to have 
given a name to all ladies similarly gifted. 

Xenophon, an illustrious writer and soldier of Athens, who 
went to Persia to assist Cyrus in obtaining the throne of that 
country. When Cyrus was defeated the auxiliary Creeks made 
their way homeward, Xenophon latterly being their leader. 
This was the famous “ Retreat of the Ten Thousand.” 

Zoroaster , a famous Persian sage, said to have founded or 
reformed the religion of the Magi. 



















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